Calculus Volume 3

# Key Concepts

Calculus Volume 3Key Concepts

### 6.1Vector Fields

• A vector field assigns a vector $F(x,y)F(x,y)$ to each point $(x,y)(x,y)$ in a subset D of $ℝ2orℝ3.ℝ2orℝ3.$ $F(x,y,z)F(x,y,z)$ to each point $(x,y,z)(x,y,z)$ in a subset D of $ℝ3.ℝ3.$
• Vector fields can describe the distribution of vector quantities such as forces or velocities over a region of the plane or of space. They are in common use in such areas as physics, engineering, meteorology, oceanography.
• We can sketch a vector field by examining its defining equation to determine relative magnitudes in various locations and then drawing enough vectors to determine a pattern.
• A vector field $FF$ is called conservative if there exists a scalar function $ff$ such that $∇f=F.∇f=F.$

### 6.2Line Integrals

• Line integrals generalize the notion of a single-variable integral to higher dimensions. The domain of integration in a single-variable integral is a line segment along the x-axis, but the domain of integration in a line integral is a curve in a plane or in space.
• If C is a curve, then the length of C is $∫Cds.∫Cds.$
• There are two kinds of line integral: scalar line integrals and vector line integrals. Scalar line integrals can be used to calculate the mass of a wire; vector line integrals can be used to calculate the work done on a particle traveling through a field.
• Scalar line integrals can be calculated using Equation 6.8; vector line integrals can be calculated using Equation 6.9.
• Two key concepts expressed in terms of line integrals are flux and circulation. Flux measures the rate that a field crosses a given line; circulation measures the tendency of a field to move in the same direction as a given closed curve.

### 6.3Conservative Vector Fields

• The theorems in this section require curves that are closed, simple, or both, and regions that are connected or simply connected.
• The line integral of a conservative vector field can be calculated using the Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals. This theorem is a generalization of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in higher dimensions. Using this theorem usually makes the calculation of the line integral easier.
• Conservative fields are independent of path. The line integral of a conservative field depends only on the value of the potential function at the endpoints of the domain curve.
• Given vector field F, we can test whether F is conservative by using the cross-partial property. If F has the cross-partial property and the domain is simply connected, then F is conservative (and thus has a potential function). If F is conservative, we can find a potential function by using the Problem-Solving Strategy.
• The circulation of a conservative vector field on a simply connected domain over a closed curve is zero.

### 6.4Green’s Theorem

• Green’s theorem relates the integral over a connected region to an integral over the boundary of the region. Green’s theorem is a version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in one higher dimension.
• Green’s Theorem comes in two forms: a circulation form and a flux form. In the circulation form, the integrand is $F·T.F·T.$ In the flux form, the integrand is $F·N.F·N.$
• Green’s theorem can be used to transform a difficult line integral into an easier double integral, or to transform a difficult double integral into an easier line integral.
• A vector field is source free if it has a stream function. The flux of a source-free vector field across a closed curve is zero, just as the circulation of a conservative vector field across a closed curve is zero.

### 6.5Divergence and Curl

• The divergence of a vector field is a scalar function. Divergence measures the “outflowing-ness” of a vector field. If v is the velocity field of a fluid, then the divergence of v at a point is the outflow of the fluid less the inflow at the point.
• The curl of a vector field is a vector field. The curl of a vector field at point P measures the tendency of particles at P to rotate about the axis that points in the direction of the curl at P.
• A vector field with a simply connected domain is conservative if and only if its curl is zero.

### 6.6Surface Integrals

• Surfaces can be parameterized, just as curves can be parameterized. In general, surfaces must be parameterized with two parameters.
• Surfaces can sometimes be oriented, just as curves can be oriented. Some surfaces, such as a Möbius strip, cannot be oriented.
• A surface integral is like a line integral in one higher dimension. The domain of integration of a surface integral is a surface in a plane or space, rather than a curve in a plane or space.
• The integrand of a surface integral can be a scalar function or a vector field. To calculate a surface integral with an integrand that is a function, use Equation 6.19. To calculate a surface integral with an integrand that is a vector field, use Equation 6.20.
• If S is a surface, then the area of S is $∫∫SdS.∫∫SdS.$

### 6.7Stokes’ Theorem

• Stokes’ theorem relates a flux integral over a surface to a line integral around the boundary of the surface. Stokes’ theorem is a higher dimensional version of Green’s theorem, and therefore is another version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in higher dimensions.
• Stokes’ theorem can be used to transform a difficult surface integral into an easier line integral, or a difficult line integral into an easier surface integral.
• Through Stokes’ theorem, line integrals can be evaluated using the simplest surface with boundary C.
• Faraday’s law relates the curl of an electric field to the rate of change of the corresponding magnetic field. Stokes’ theorem can be used to derive Faraday’s law.

### 6.8The Divergence Theorem

• The divergence theorem relates a surface integral across closed surface S to a triple integral over the solid enclosed by S. The divergence theorem is a higher dimensional version of the flux form of Green’s theorem, and is therefore a higher dimensional version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
• The divergence theorem can be used to transform a difficult flux integral into an easier triple integral and vice versa.
• The divergence theorem can be used to derive Gauss’ law, a fundamental law in electrostatics.
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