Handbook

Developing a Main Point

A paragraph is easier to write and easier to read when it centers on a main point. The main point of the paragraph is usually expressed in a topic sentence. The topic sentence frequently comes at the start of the paragraph, but not always. No matter the position, however, the other sentences in the paragraph support the main point.

Supporting Evidence and Analysis

All the sentences that develop the paragraph should support or expand on the main point given in the topic sentence. Depending on the type of writing you are doing, support may include evidence from sources—such as facts, statistics, and expert opinions—as well as examples from your own experience. Paragraphs also may include an analysis of your evidence written in your own words. The analysis explains the significance of the evidence to the reader and reinforces the main point of the paragraph.

In the following example, the topic sentence is underlined. The supporting evidence discussed through cause-and-effect reasoning comes in the next three sentences. The paragraph concludes with two sentences of analysis in the writer’s own words.

underlineMillions of retired Americans rely on Social Security benefits to make ends meet after they turn 65.end underline According to the Social Security Administration, about 46 million retired workers receive benefits, a number that reflects about 90 percent of retired people. Although experts disagree on the exact numbers, somewhere between 12 percent and 40 percent of retirees count on social security for all of their income, making these benefits especially important (Konish). These benefits become more important as people age. According to Eisenberg, people who reach the age of 85 become more financially vulnerable because their health care and long-term care costs increase at the same time their savings have been drawn down. It should therefore come as no surprise that people worry about changes to the program. Social Security keeps millions of retired Americans out of poverty.

Opening Paragraphs

Readers pay attention to the opening of a piece of writing, so make it work for you. After starting with a descriptive title, write an opening paragraph that grabs readers’ attention and alerts them to what’s coming. A strong opening paragraph provides the first clues about your subject and your stance. In academic writing, whether argumentative, interpretative, or informative, the introduction often ends with a clear thesis statement, a declarative sentence that states the topic, the angle you are taking, and the aspects of the topic the rest of the paper will support.

Depending on the type of writing you’re doing, you can open in a variety of ways.

• Open with a conflict or an action. If you’re writing about conflict, a good opening may be to spell out what the conflict is. This way of opening captures attention by creating a kind of suspense: Will the conflict be resolved? How will it be resolved?
• Open with a specific detail, statistic, or quotation. Specific information shows that you know a lot about your subject and piques readers’ curiosity. The more dramatic your information, the more it will draw in readers, as long as what you provide is credible.
• Open with an anecdote. Readers enjoy stories. Particularly for reflective or personal narrative writing, beginning with a story sets the scene and draws in readers. You may also begin the anecdote with dialogue or reflection.

The following introduction opens with an anecdote and ends with the thesis statement, which is underlined.

Betty stood outside the salon, wondering how to get in. It was June of 2020, and the door was locked. A sign posted on the door provided a phone number for her to call to be let in, but at 81, Betty had lived her life without a cell phone. Betty’s day-to-day life had been hard during the pandemic, but she had planned for this haircut and was looking forward to it: she had a mask on and hand sanitizer in her car. Now she couldn’t get in the door, and she was discouraged. In that moment, Betty realized how much Americans’ dependence on cell phones had grown in the months she and millions of others had been forced to stay at home. underlineBetty and thousands of other senior citizens who could not afford cell phones or did not have the technological skills and support they needed were being left behind in a society that was increasingly reliant on technologyend underline.

Closing Paragraphs

The conclusion is your final chance to make the point of your writing stick in readers’ minds by reinforcing what they have read. Depending on the purpose for your writing and your audience, you can summarize your main points and restate your thesis, draw a logical conclusion, speculate about the issues you have raised, or recommend a course of action, as shown in the following conclusion:

Although many senior citizens purchased and learned new technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant number of older people like Betty were unable to buy and/or learn the technology they needed to keep them connected to the people and services they needed. As society becomes increasingly dependent on technology, social service agencies, religious institutions, medical providers, senior centers, and other organizations that serve the elderly need to be equipped to help them access and become proficient in the technologies essential to their daily lives.

Flow

A paragraph flows when ideas are organized logically and sentences move smoothly from one to the next. Transitional words and phrases help your writing flow by signaling to readers what’s coming in the next sentence. In the paragraph below, the topic sentence and transitional words and phrases are underlined.

underlineSome companies court the public by mentioning environmental problems and pointing out that they do not contribute to these problems.end underline underlineFor exampleend underline, the natural gas industry often presents natural gas as a good alternative to coal. underlineHoweverend underline, according to the Union of Concerned Scientists, the drilling and extraction of natural gas from wells and transporting it through pipelines leaks methane, a major cause of global warming (“Environmental Impacts”). underlineYetend underline leaks are rarely mentioned by the industry. By taking credit for problems they don’t cause and being silent on the ones they do, companies present a favorable environmental image that often obscures the truth.

Transitional Words and Phrases

Following are some transitional words and phrases and their functions in paragraphs. Use this list when drafting or revising to help guide readers through your writing. (See Editing Focus: Paragraphs and Transitions for another discussion on transitions.)

Use Action Verbs

Using action verbs is one of the most direct ways to cut unneeded words. Whenever you find a phrase like the ones below, consider substituting an action verb.

Cut Unnecessary Words and Phrases

Eliminate words and phrases that do not add meaning. Consider the following sentences, which say essentially the same thing.

Wordy In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible to cut out needless, redundant, and repetitive words and phrases from the papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments. (49 words)

Concise Whenever possible, cut needless words and phrases from your college writing. (11 words)

The wordy sentence is full of early-draft language in three chunks. The first chunk comes at the beginning of the sentence. Notice how In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible is reduced to Whenever possible in the concise sentence.

The second chunk of the wordy sentence is needless, redundant, and repetitive. The concise version reduces those four words to needless because the words have the same meaning. The third chunk of the wordy sentence comes at the end. Notice how papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments is reduced to your college writing. The meaning, although expanded to all writing, remains the same.

The following phrases are common fillers that add nothing to meaning. They should be avoided.

• a person by the name of
• for all intents and purposes
• in a manner of speaking
• more or less

Some common filler phrases have single-word alternatives, which are preferable.

Avoid there is/there are and it is

Starting a sentence with there is, there are, or it is can be useful to draw attention to a change in direction. However, starting a sentence with one of these phrases often forces you into a wordy construction. Wordiness means the presence of verbal filler; it does not mean the number of words, the amount of description, or the length of a composition. (For more on these constructions, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure.)

Wordy underlineThere is often uncertainty about whether or not employeesend underline are required to turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underlinethere areend underline some employees underlinewhoend underline don’t. However, underlineit is the expectation of employersend underline that cameras underlinebeend underline turned on.

Concise underlineEmployees are often uncertain whether theyend underline must turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underlinesome don’tend underline. However, underlineemployers expectend underline cameras to be turned on.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has one idea expressed in a single main clause (also known as an independent clause). A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence. A simple sentence can be short or long, as shown in the examples below. The phrases in the long sentence add information, but the sentence remains a simple sentence nonetheless because it has only one clause.

The underlinecoronavirusend underline double underlinespreadend double underline around in the world in 2020.

School-age underlinechildrenend underline and college underlinestudentsend underline double underlinewere pushedend double underline into virtual learning environments in March 2020, with schools closing for unspecified lengths of time.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses that are equally important to the meaning of the sentence. (A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence.) You can create compound sentences in the following ways:

• Compound Sentence Using a Coordinating Conjunction

  Create a compound sentence by using a coordinating conjunction—for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so (fanboys)—to join main clauses. To remember the coordinating conjunctions, use the mnemonic device fanboys.

  underlineRestaurantsend underline and small underlineretailersend underline double underlineexperiencedend double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, and underlinemanyend underline double underlinewere forcedend double underline to close.

  underlineRestaurantsend underline and small underlineretailersend underline double underlineexperiencedend double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, yet underlinemanyend underline double underlinesurvivedend double underline the downturn.

• Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon

  A semicolon can join two main clauses that are closely related in meaning. When using a semicolon, you must have a complete sentence before and after it.

  underlineRestaurantsend underline and small underlineretailersend underline double underlineexperiencedend double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic; underlinemanyend underline double underlinewere forcedend double underline to close.

• Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase

  A transitional words or phrases such as however, in fact, meanwhile, therefore, consequently, as a result, instead, or furthermore indicates the relation of two or more equally important ideas in the main clauses.

  underlineRestaurantsend underline and small underlineretailersend underline double underlineexperiencedend double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic; however, underlinemanyend underline double underlinesurvivedend double underline the downturn.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains one main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence) and one or more subordinate clauses (also known as dependent clauses). Subordinate clauses begin with a subordinating word or phrase such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, or while. The main clause expresses the main idea of the sentence, and the subordinate clause expresses the less important idea. Like a main clause, a subordinate clause has a subject and verb; however, unlike a main clause, it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause punctuated as a sentence is a type of sentence fragment. The subordinate clauses in the following sentences are underlined.

underlineAlthough the federal government provided financial assistanceend underline, the money came too late for many businesses. underlineWhen schools and universities shut down in March of 2020end underline, students had to learn at home, underlinea situation that proved challenging for many householdsend underline.

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses (clauses that contain subjects and predicates and can stand alone as sentences) and one or more subordinate clauses (clauses that begin with a subordinating word such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, and while). A compound-complex sentence is an effective structure to use when you want to express three or more ideas in a single sentence. The example sentence has two main clauses (double underline) and three subordinate clauses (single underline).

underlineWhen school districts reopenedend underline, double underlineparents had to decideend double underline underlinewhether they wanted their children to attend classes in personend underline, double underlineand they had to be ready for classes to move onlineend double underline underlineif there were outbreaks of the coronavirus in their community.end underline

Unintentional Sentence Fragments

Often a sentence fragment follows a complete sentence and expands on it, as illustrated in the examples below (fragments are underlined). You can correct most fragment errors by attaching the fragment to the sentence to which it belongs or by rewriting the fragment as a complete sentence.

Sentence Fragment People think that they will be happy if they are well off. underlineThat money will make everything better.end underline

Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence People think that they will be happy if they are well off underlineandend underline that money will make everything better.

Sentence Fragment Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money. Thus underlinefurther explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness.end underline

Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money, underlinethus further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness.end underline

Sentence Fragment Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underlineWith rich people reporting that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much.end underline

Revised by Adding a Verb Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underlineRich people reportedend underline that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much.

Sentence Fragment For many people, increased income is being spent on the things that people are unable to pay less for. underlineThings like taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing.end underline

Revised by Adding a Subject and a Verb For many people, increased income is being spent on things that people are unable to pay less for. underlineThese includeend underline taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing.

Intentional Sentence Fragments

Intentional sentence fragments force quick reading, inviting readers to stitch meaning to together. Intentional fragments are most common in creative writing and advertising.

The rabbit darted out of the shadows. underlineA flash of movement.end underline The dog lunged and strained at the leash.

Dialects

English dialects are distinctive versions of the language used in geographical regions and/or by particular social or ethnic groups. Standard American English, the English spoken by newscasters, is one such dialect, as are African American Vernacular English, Creole, Appalachian English, and others. English dialects have many features in common, but each has particulars of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. (For an in-depth discussion of dialects and academic writing, see Spotlight on … Variations of English.)

Slang

Groups of people with similar skills and interests often develop slang that allows them to express ideas quickly and vividly. Slang also signals knowledge about a particular topic, such as meme culture, music, sports, and more. Slang is generally considered too casual for most academic writing, but it may be appropriate for personal essays. In your papers, be aware of your purpose and audience when choosing to use slang. Avoid using slang that your readers are unlikely to understand.

Technical Expressions

Experts in many professional fields use specialized and technical expressions that allow them to communicate efficiently and clearly with each other. Such language is often incomprehensible for nonexperts and should be avoided in writing for general readers. (For tips on writing about a technical topic for an audience of nonspecialists, see Spotlight on … Discipline-Specific and Technical Language.)

Biased Language Based on Sex and Gender

English includes words and expressions that are considered biased based on sex and gender, such as mankind, businessman, chairman, fireman, and so on. These are commonly replaced by gender-neutral words such as humanity, businessperson, chair or chairperson, and firefighter. (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)

In addition, the English pronoun he has traditionally been used as the gender-neutral pronoun. For example, the construction A underlinedoctorend underline should have a caring attitude toward underlinehisend underline patients was once common but is now widely viewed as gender biased because many doctors are not men. For a discussion of the pronoun he used as the gender-neutral pronoun, see Pronouns.

Labels and Stereotypes

Be sensitive to labels and stereotypes that may insult a group of people you are writing about. Avoid labels that don’t put people first, such as cancer victim and wheelchair-bound. Don’t make assumptions about entire groups of people that promote stereotypes, such as teenagers are rebellious, elderly people don’t hear well, conservatives are rich, or women are more emotional than men. (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)

Words Commonly Confused

The words in the following list are commonly confused or misused by writers. As you write, consult this list or use a reliable online tool, such as Merriam-Webster, to check the meanings and usage of words you’re unsure of. Keep a list of words that cause you trouble as you become aware of them. Then, after you draft a document, do a search for the words on your list. (For a discussion of homonyms, homographs, and homophones, see Editing Focus: Words Often Confused.)

Agreement with Compound Subjects

Two or more subjects joined by and take a plural verb in most sentences:

underlineYoga and meditationend underline double underlineareend double underline effective activities for relieving stress.

However, when the parts of the subject form a single idea or unit, the verb is singular:

underlineMacaroni and cheeseend underline double underlineisend double underline my favorite meal.

When compound subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the word closest to it:

Either your aunts or your underlinemotherend underline double underlineremembersend double underline where your great-grandmother’s grave is located.

Neither the image nor the underlinewordsend underline double underlineconveyend double underline the message of the advertisement clearly.

Agreement When Words Come between Subject and Verb

The verb must agree with the subject even when words and phrases come between them:

The underlinecostend underline of the flights double underlineisend double underline prohibitive.

A underlineboxend underline of invitations with stamps and return addresses double underlinewasend double underline on the desk.

Agreement When the Verb Comes Before the Subject

The verb must agree with the subject, even when it comes before the subject:

double underlineAreend double underline underlineJames and Tamaraend underline at the front of the line?

There double underlinewereend double underline three underlinepeopleend underline ahead of us in line.

Under the table double underlineareend double underline a underlinenewspaperend underline and a underlinemagazineend underline.

Agreement with Everyone and Other Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is general; it does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Most indefinite pronouns take a singular verb, but not all. Those that take a singular verb include anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something.

underlineEveryoneend underline in the class double underlinehas preparedend double underline a research proposal.

underlineNobodyend underline among the accused suspects double underlineadmitsend double underline to the crime.

The following indefinite pronouns take a plural verb: both, few many, others, and several.

underlineSeveralend underline of the students in the class double underlinehave proposedend double underline researching hurricanes.

underlineBothend underline of the suspects double underlinedenyend double underline committing the crime.

Several indefinite pronouns take a singular or plural verb depending on whether the word they refer to is singular or plural. These include all, any, enough, more, most, neither, none, and some.

underlineMostend underline of the class double underlinehas proposedend double underline researching a topic related to climate change. (Most refers to class.)

underlineMostend underline of the students in the class double underlinehave proposedend double underline researching a topic related to climate change. (Most refers to students.)

underlineNeitherend underline the students underlinenorend underline the teachers double underlinehave proposedend double underline a field trip. (Neither/nor refers to students and teachers.)

Agreement with Collective Nouns

Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or a plural verb depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular verb:

The underlinebandend underline double underlinerehearsesend double underline every day.

When the group acts individually, use a plural verb, or to avoid confusion, add the word members and use a plural verb.

The underlinejuryend underline double underlinedo not agreeend double underline on a verdict.

The underlinejuryend underline members double underlinedo not agreeend double underline on a verdict.

Agreement with Words Such as News and Statistics

Some nouns that end in -s, such as athletics, economics, measles, news, physics, politics, and statistics seem plural but are usually regarded as singular in meaning. In most situations, these words take a singular verb:

Day after day, the underlinenewsend underline double underlinewasend double underline bad.

underlineStatisticsend underline double underlinefulfillsend double underline a math requirement for many college majors.

When a word like economics, politics, or statistics refers to a specific situation, use a plural verb:

The underlineeconomicsend underline of the situation double underlineareend double underline hard to comprehend.

Agreement with Titles and Words Used as Words

Whether singular or plural in form, titles and words used as words take singular verbs:

Directed by Spike Lee, underlineDa 5 Bloodsend underline double underlinecentersend double underline around four veterans returning to Vietnam to find the remains of their squad leader and the fortune they hid together.

underlineChildrenend underline double underlineisend double underline the plural form of child.

Verb Tense in Narrative Writing

Personal experience stories, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, personal essays, or profiles, can be written in either the past or the present tense. Although the most natural way to tell a story about a past experience is to write in the past tense, the present tense can draw readers into the story and give the illusion that the experience is happening as they are reading it. In the following examples, the writer describes driving with her Native American grandfather to a tribal conference. Notice the difference between the past and present tense.

Narrative Writing Using Past Tense I double underlinesatend double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underlinewatchedend double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underlinegatheredend double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underlinedroveend double underline the van with the other. I double underlinememorizedend double underline his every move as he double underlinewentend double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underlineendedend double underline when he double underlineblewend double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind.

Narrative Writing Using Present Tense I double underlinesitend double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underlinewatchend double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underlinegathersend double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underlinedrivesend double underline the van with the other. I double underlinememorizeend double underline his every move as he double underlinegoesend double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underlineendsend double underline when he double underlineblowsend double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind.

Verb Tense in Academic Writing

Academic disciplines differ in their tense preferences for signal phrases used in formal essays and reports to introduce and discuss evidence. A signal phrase is a verb that tells readers the words or ideas that follow come from another source. Signal phrases include words such as argues, asserts, claims, comments, denies, discusses, implies, proposes, says, shows, states, and suggests. (For more discussion and a more extensive list of signal phrases, see Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations.)

If you are writing for a course in English, a foreign language, or a related discipline and using MLA documentation style, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.

Present Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underlineclaimsend double underline that . . .

Present Perfect Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underlinehas claimedend double underline that . . .

When you are analyzing a work of literature, common practice is to use the literary present tense in discussing both the work of the author and the action that occurs in the work:

Being cool double underlineisend double underline key to the lives of the speakers in “We Real Cool,” a poem by Gwendolyn Brooks. Brooks double underlineusesend double underline short lines and stanzas in which speakers double underlinelistend double underline what it means to be cool: dropping out of school, staying out late, playing pool, drinking, carousing, and so on. Being cool double underlineunitesend double underline the speakers, and they double underlinecelebrateend double underline their lifestyle, even as they double underlineacknowledgeend double underline in the final line of the poem that their coolness double underlinemay causeend double underline them to die young.

(For more on literary present tense, see Editing Focus: Literary Works Live in the Present.)

If you are writing for a course in history, art history, philosophy, religion, or a related discipline in the humanities, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.

Present Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underlinearguesend double underline that . . .

Present Perfect Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underlinehas arguedend double underline that . . .

On the other hand, if you are writing for a course in the social sciences, such as psychology, political science, or economics; a course in the natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics; or a technical field such as engineering, you will generally use past tense or present perfect tense for most signal phrases.

Past Tense The study double underlinefoundend double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . . (past tense)

Present Perfect Tense: Several recent studies double underlinehave foundend double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . .

Verb Tense Consistency

Whichever tense you choose, be consistent throughout a piece of writing. You may need to shift tenses to indicate actual changes in time, but the governing tense should remain constant. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)

Inconsistent Blinking back tears, I double underlineclutchedend double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underlinekissend double underline his forehead, and double underlinewill gatherend double underline my things. It double underlineisend double underline 2003, and I double underlinewasend double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underlinehugend double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underlineturnend double underline and double underlineclimbedend double underline on the bus that double underlinetakesend double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underlinewasend double underline terrifying to me.

Consistent Blinking back tears, I double underlineclutchedend double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underlinekissedend double underline his forehead, and double underlinegatheredend double underline my things. It double underlinewasend double underline 2003, and I double underlinewasend double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underlinehuggedend double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underlineturnedend double underline and double underlineclimbedend double underline on the bus that double underlinewould takeend double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underlinewasend double underline terrifying to me.

Indicative Mood

Use the indicative mood to state a fact or an opinion or to ask a question:

Thousands of women currently double underlineserveend double underline in the military.

I double underlinethinkend double underline college tuition double underlineisend double underline expensive.

The weather double underlinewasend double underline awful for much of the winter but double underlinewill improveend double underline soon.

double underlineHaveend double underline you double underlinesubmittedend double underline your request for time off?

Imperative Mood

Use the imperative mood to give instructions and commands. The subject, you, is often implied but not stated:

double underline(You) Useend double underline the online form to request time off.

double underline(You) Submitend double underline your request for time off by Friday.

double underlineYou must submitend double underline your request on time.

Subjunctive Mood

Use the subjunctive mood to express wishes, suggestions, or requirements or to state hypothetical or unlikely conditions:

The rules state that every member double underlinebeend double underline present for the vote.

I wish you double underlinewereend double underline here to see the exhibition.

The governing board could be more effective if all members double underlinewereend double underline active.

Students who failed the class would have passed double underlinehadend double underline they double underlinecompletedend double underline all assignments.

Agreement with Generic Nouns and Indefinite Pronouns

Generic nouns refer to a type of person or job someone performs, such as athlete, child, scientist, doctor, or hairdresser. Indefinite pronouns include words such as anyone, each, everyone, everything, many, most, and none.

All generic nouns and most indefinite pronouns are singular in meaning. Traditionally, these words took the singular pronouns he/him/his because English does not have a gender-neutral third-person pronoun that refers to people: Everyone has his own opinion or A doctor needs to show that he cares about his patients.

More recently, writers have been replacing he/him/his or his/her with they/them/their when the person’s gender is unknown or unimportant or when the person has indicated a preference for non-gendered pronouns:

Everyone has underlinetheirend underline own opinion.

A doctor needs to show that underlinetheyend underline care about underlinetheirend underline patients.

These plural pronouns are increasingly accepted and intentionally used by writers, teachers, and editors. Many prominent publications and style guides indicate that the plural pronoun should replace binary or singular ones in most cases. If using a plural pronoun does not fit the situation (such as in a paragraph where the pronoun they is also used several times to indicate a group), try rewriting the sentence in either of these ways:

Remove the pronoun. Everyone has underlineanend underline opinion.

Make the antecedent plural. underlinePeopleend underline have their own opinions. underlineDoctorsend underline need to show that they care about their patients.

Agreement with Collective Nouns

Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or plural pronoun depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular pronoun. When the group members act individually, use a plural pronoun. If using the plural sounds awkward, add the word members so that the plural is clear.

The band went through underlineitsend underline complete playlist.

The band loaded underlinetheirend underline instruments on the bus. The band underlinemembersend underline loaded underlinetheirend underline instruments on the bus.

Case in Compound Structures

Compound subjects use subjective case pronouns. Compound objects use objective case pronouns.

Subjective Case underlineAntonioend underline and underlineIend underline have occasional disagreements about the dishes.

Objective Case Occasional disagreements about the dishes come up between underlineAntonioend underline and underlinemeend underline.

Case After than or as

In a comparison, the case of the pronoun indicates which words have been left out:

Antonio cares more about having a clean kitchen than underlineIend underline [do].

Sometimes I think Antonio cares more about a clean kitchen than [he cares about] underlinemeend underline.

Who or Whom

Use the subjective case who in place of a subject—whether it is the subject of the sentence or the subject of a clause:

underlineWhoend underline is going to the concert? (subject of sentence)

Give the tickets to underlinewhoeverend underline can use them. (subject of clause)

She is the person underlinewhoend underline is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause)

She is the person underlinewhoend underline I think is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause; the intervening words “I think” don’t change the subject or verb of the clause)

Use the objective case whom in place of an object, whether it is the object of a verb, preposition, or clause:

I don’t know underlinewhomend underline to ask. (object of verb)

To underlinewhomend underline should I give the extra concert tickets? (object of preposition)

Give the tickets to underlinewhomeverend underline you choose. (object of clause)

We or us with a Noun

Use we with a subject. Use us with an object.

underlineWeend underline citizens must vote in order to make our voices heard. (subject)

Legislators need to hear from underlineusend underline citizens. (object)

Case Before or After an Infinitive

Use the objective case before and after an infinitive (the to form of a verb: to run, to walk, to eat):

The agent asked Antonio and underlinemeend underline to write a review.

We agreed to give underlinehimend underline a positive review.

Case Before a Gerund

Generally, use the possessive case of a pronoun before a gerund (the -ing form of a verb used as a noun: gentle underlinesnoringend underline, elegant underlinediningend underline):

He grew tired of underlinetheirend underline partying late into the night.

The rental agreement depends on underlineyourend underline approving the lease terms.

Commas with Main Clauses

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) joining main clauses:

Businesses in the metropolitan area are growingunderline, andend underline unemployment is down.

Many job seekers use online sites like Indeed.comunderline, butend underline a few still send traditional cover letters and résumés through the mail.

A solution must be determined soonunderline, orend underline the problem will continue.

Commas with Introductory Information

Use a comma after an introductory element at the start of a sentence:

underlineAfter class is over,end underline we should get lunch and review our notes.

underlineShuffling his feet nervously,end underline he waited for the train.

underlineHoweverend underline, the circumstances have not changed.

Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information

(See Editing Focus: Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information for a related discussion of commas.)

Nonessential information refers to information that is usually not necessary to the basic meaning of a sentence. Nonessential information is set off by commas. In the following sentence, the word original tells readers which labs no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students. The underlined information adds information but does not change the meaning of the sentence and thus is nonessential to the basic meaning:

The original technical education labsunderline, which were installed 50 years ago,end underline no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.

Essential information, on the other hand, is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. In following example, the word original is no longer part of the sentence; the underlined words convey necessary information about the labs:

The technical education labs underlinethat were installed 50 yearsend underline ago no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.

You can test whether information is nonessential by removing the information. If the meaning of the sentence is unchanged, the information is nonessential. If the meaning becomes too general or changes, the information is essential. In the sentence above, only the labs installed 50 years ago, as opposed to other labs, no longer meet the needs of teachers and students. Note, also, the use of which with nonessential information and that with essential information.

Serial (Oxford or Harvard) Commas

For clarity, use a comma between items in a series:

He studied all the notes, emails, memos, and reports related to the data breach.

Be aware, however, that certain style manuals, such as the AP Stylebook, do not use the serial comma, also called the Oxford or Harvard comma.

Commas with Numbers, Dates, Titles with Names, and Addresses

The sign gave the city’s population as 122,887.

Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison died on August 5, 2019.

Diana Wong, M.D., is a practicing obstetrician.

The mailing address for the Smithsonian Institution is 600 Maryland Avenue SW, Washington, D.C., 20002.

Common Comma Errors

Misplaced commas can make sentences choppy and obscure the intended meaning.

Apostrophes to Show Possession

Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate possession with a singular noun or an indefinite pronoun:

underlineJack’send underline brother is my underlinesister’send underline coworker.

In their family, underlineeveryone’send underline favorite dessert is ice cream.

If the ’s in a singular noun is pronounced, add apostrophe -s:

The underlinebusiness’send underline inconsistent hours caused customers to go elsewhere.

Los underlineAngeles’send underline airport, LAX, is one of the busiest in the United States.

If the ’s is not pronounced in a singular noun, some writers choose to add an apostrophe alone; however, MLA, APA, and Chicago use the apostrophe and s in these cases:

David underlineMyers’end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness, was published in 1992.

David underlineMyers’send underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness, was published in 1992.

When the noun is plural and ends in -s, place the apostrophe after the final -s:

American underlinehouseholds’end underline incomes have grown since the 1970s because more women have entered the workforce.

These underlinefamilies’end underline expenses have risen too.

When the noun is plural and does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and -s:

Social underlinemedia’send underline effect on contemporary life cannot be underestimated.

During the pandemic, parents’ stress grew as they helped with their underlinechildren’send underline schooling.

Apostrophes to Form Contractions

Contractions are common in speech and in informal writing. Use an apostrophe in contractions:

When I say I underlinecan’tend underline, I mean I underlinewon’tend underline.

underlineIt’send underline the best option under the circumstances.

“underlineYou’reend underline the best friend anyone can have,” Mikayla said.

underlineThey’reend underline driving to their favorite hangout spot.

Common Apostrophe Errors

Apostrophes are not used to form plural nouns, singular verbs, or personal or relative pronouns.

Semicolons

The semicolon joins main clauses (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence). A semicolon is also used to separate items in a series that contain commas.

• Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are closely related in meaning and that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so).

  Originally built in 1928, the school had been remodeled multiple timesunderline;end underline the result was an architectural mashup.

• Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are connected by a transitional word or phrase such as for example, however, therefore, indeed, or after all:

  The governor has proposed increased funding to K-12 public schoolsunderline; however,end underline the legislature must approve the budget.

• Use a semicolon between items in a series that contain internal commas:

  The candidates for the award are Michael, who won the essay competition; Sasha, the top debater; and Giselle, who directed several student productions.

Colons

A colon introduces lists, summaries, and quotations. A colon also separates titles from subtitles.

• A colon can introduce a list:

  Successful athletes have the following qualitiesunderline: physical ability, mental toughness, commitment, and optimismend underline.

• A colon can also introduce a summary or an explanation, which may or may not be a main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence):

  The team had one goal left before the end of the seasonunderline: to win the state championshipend underline.

• Book titles often include a subtitle. A colon separates the subtitle from the title:

  Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality

End Punctuation

A sentence ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.

• A period ends declarative (statement) and imperative (command) sentences:

  The administration canceled classes.

  Do not attempt to drive to school this morning.

• A question mark ends a direct question and indicates uncertainty in dates:

  Where is Times Square?

  She asked, “What time is it?”

• An exclamation point ends an emphatic or emotional sentence:

  “What a mess!” she blurted out.

  “Stop! That hurts!” he shouted.

Dashes and Parentheses

Dashes and parentheses enclose nonessential information in a sentence.

• Use a dash or dashes to set off nonessential information, to indicate a contrast or a pause, or to mark a change of direction.

  We did not notice the rain at first—it began so softly—but soon we were soaked.

  Nothing is as exciting as seeing a snowy owl in a winter farm field—except maybe seeing two snowy owls.

• Use parentheses to enclose nonessential information such as explanations, asides, examples, and dates.

  He graduated with high honors (magna cum laude) and found a job immediately.

  The city of Madison (home of the University of Wisconsin) is the state capital of Wisconsin.

Capitalization in Titles and Subtitles

Capitalize the first and last words in a title and subtitle and other important words. Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so), or prepositions (above, with, of, in, through, beyond, under) unless they are the first or last words in the title or subtitle.

• Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality (book)
• Judas and the Black Messiah (film)
• “American Military Performance in Vietnam: Background and Analysis” (article)

Italics for Titles of Long Works

Use italics for long works that are published, produced, or released separately from other works. These include books, long poems, plays, movies, videos, published speeches, periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), websites, long musical works, works of visual art, computer software, TV or radio programs and series, and pamphlets.

• Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food (book)
• The New Yorker (periodical)
• The Los Angeles Times (newspaper)
• American Idiot (album)
• Parasite (film)
• Saturday Night Live (TV program)

Quotation Marks for Titles of Shorter Works

Put quotation marks around the titles and subtitles of individual shorter works or those that are published or released within larger works. These include articles in periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), pages or works on a website, short stories, short poems, essays, songs, episodes of TV or radio programs and series, book chapters, and unpublished speeches.

• “Living with a Visionary” (article in a magazine)
• “A World of Fields and Fences” (work on a website)
• “New York Day Women” (short story)
• “Corson’s Inlet” (short poem)
• “Return from ISIS” (TV episode)

Quoting a Source

When quoting the words of a source, introduce quoted material with a signal phrase so that readers know the source and purpose of the quotation. Place the quotation inside double quotation marks. When using parenthetical citations, note that the sentence period comes after the parentheses. If you include the author’s name in your signal phrase, give only the page number in parentheses (first example). If you do not give the author’s name in your signal phrase, give the name in parentheses (second example):

In Walden, Thoreau sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “lives of quiet desperation” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (5).

Walden sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “lives of quiet desperation” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (Thoreau 5).

Abraham Lincoln wrote “that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth” in his Gettysburg Address.

Quoting or Writing Dialogue

When quoting or writing dialogue between speakers, including characters in a fictional work, place their words in double quotation marks, and start a new paragraph for each speaker:

“It’s good to see you—I guess,” Brayden said, as Christopher walked up to the door. “I thought you were gone for good.”

“I missed you too much,” Christopher said, looking down at his feet.

Single and Double Quotation Marks

Put single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation, using double quotation marks around the full quotation:

Kennedy writes that after a year of teambuilding work, including improvements in communication, evaluation, and small-group quarterly meetings, morale among staff members “improved from ‘average’ to ‘excellent’” (17).

Long Quotations

Introduce a long quotation (four typed lines in MLA style; 40 or more words in APA style) with a signal phrase that names the author and ends with a colon. Indent this entire block quotation one-half inch. If you quote more than one paragraph, indent the first line of each subsequent paragraph one-half inch. Do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation:

In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House, reformer Jane Addams recounts vivid stories of child labor:

public domain textThe visits we made in the neighborhood constantly discovered women sewing upon sweatshop work, and often they were assisted by incredibly small children. I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery. For even for that there was no legal redress, for the only child labor law in Illinois, with any provision for enforcement, had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines. (199)end public domain text

Poetry Quotations

When you quote one, two, or three lines from a poem, use the following format, putting quotation marks around the line or group of lines and separating the lines with a slash:

The 17th-century writer Aphra Behn (1640–1689) wrote humorous poems about love and heartbreak, including “Love’s Power,” which opens with “Love when he Shoots abroad his Darts / Regards not where they light” (1-2).

When you quote more than three lines from a poem, set them off from your text. Indent the quotation one-half inch, and do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation.

In the poem “The Character,” Aphra Behn (1640–1689) uses the familiar alternate rhyme scheme, also known as ABAB:

Such Charms of Youth, such Ravishment

Through all her Form appear’d,

As if in her Creation Nature meant,

She shou’d a-lone be ador’d and fear’d. (1-4)

Ellipses

An ellipsis [. . .] indicates that you have omitted words from a quotation. In the example below, the writer omitted words from the middle of the sentence.

In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House, reformer Jane Addams explains that there were no enforceable laws against small children helping their mothers with sweatshop sewing work, and that “the only child labor law in Illinois . . . had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines” (199).

If you omit the end of a sentence or a complete sentence, include the sentence period:

The author explains as follows: “Damage to the Broca’s area of the brain can affect a person’s ability to comprehend spoken language. . . . A person may understand speech relatively well when the sentence grammar is simple and the content familiar but may struggle when the grammar and content are more complex” (Hollar-Zwick 45).

Brackets

Use brackets [ ] to indicate a change you have made to a quotation:

Abruzzi cited the study, noting that “[t]he results provide hope to patients [with muscular dystrophy].”

Periods

Place the period inside quotation marks if no source is cited:

The meteorologist said, “Today’s weather will be sunny and mild.”

If you are citing a source in parentheses, place the quotation marks at the end of the quotation, followed by the citation and the sentence period:

In Twenty Years at Hull-House, Jane Addams recalls vivid images of child labor: “I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery” (199).

(See Long Quotations and Poetry Quotations above for exceptions to this rule.)

Commas

Commas go inside quotation marks:

“Tomorrow’s weather will be cool and rainy,” the meteorologist said.

Colons and Semicolons

Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks:

The sign read “Closed”: No more films would be shown at the theater. (Note: Use a capital letter if a complete sentence follows the colon.)

Question Marks and Exclamation Points

Question marks and exclamation points go inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation:

“Would you like a sandwich?” asked Adelaide.

Question marks and exclamation points go outside quotation marks if they are not part of the quotation:

“I can’t believe you haven’t read “The Lottery”!

In-Text Citation Models

1. One author
2. Two or more works by the same author
3. Two authors
4. Three or more authors
5. Authors with the same last name
6. Organization, government, corporation, or association as author
7. Unknown author
8. Work in more than one volume
9. Work with no page or other reference numbers
10. One-page or entire work
11. Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)
12. Literary works
    • Poetry and verse plays
    • Fiction and prose plays
13. Two or more works in the same citation
14. Sacred text

Endnotes and Footnotes (MLA)

Format of the List of Works Cited (MLA)

In-Text Citation Models (APA)

75. One author
76. Two authors
77. Three or more authors
78. Authors with the same last name
79. Organization, government, corporation, or association as author
80. Unknown author
81. Two or more works in the same citation
82. Work with no page numbers
83. Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)
84. Entire work
85. Personal communication

Format of the References List (APA)

Endnotes and Footnotes

Writers use notes to offer comments, explanations, or additional information that cannot easily be integrated into the rest of a paper. Use notes to cite several sources within a single context if a series of in-text citations will detract from the readability of the text.

Format of the List of Works Cited (MLA)

After the last page of the paper, start a new page with the centered title “Works Cited” at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples:

• Begin each entry at the left margin, and indent subsequent lines one-half inch. (In Microsoft Word, you can also highlight the entire page when you are finished and select “Hanging” from the Special options on the Indentation section of the Paragraph menu.)
• Alphabetize the entries according to authors’ last names. If two or more authors have the same last name, alphabetize by first name or initial. Alphabetize sources with unknown authors by the first word of the title, excluding a, an, or the.
• Double-space the entire page.

Core Elements (MLA)

Each entry in the list of works cited consists of core elements:

• Author. Who is responsible for the work?
• Title. What is the work called?

• Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it? Publication information includes the date of publication and any larger work, which MLA calls a “container,” in which a shorter work is published, such as a journal, magazine, newspaper, database, streaming service, and so on.

  A note on access dates. Although access dates for online sources are not required, MLA acknowledges that an access date can indicate the version of a source you consulted. If you add an access date, place it at the end of the works-cited entry in this format: “Accessed 4 Apr. 2020.” Ask your instructors whether they require access dates.

Authors and Contributors for Books and Articles (MLA)

• Authors. Give the author’s last name, a comma, the author’s first name and any middle name or middle initial, and then a period. For works with more than one author, an organization as an author, or an unknown author, see the models below.
• Contributors. People who contributed to the work in addition to the author are called contributors. Refer to them by their role in a phrase such as “adapted by,” “directed by,” “edited by,” “illustrated by,” “introduction by,” “narrated by,” “performance by,” and “translated by.” (See Models 19, 20, 21, 30, and 58 for examples.)

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers (MLA)

Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines. They appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.

Books and Parts of Books (MLA)

Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, an article in a collection, a published letter, and so on.

Websites and Parts of Websites (MLA)

Use the following guidelines for works that are published only online and do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, magazine, or database.

Social Media (MLA)

Social media include posts made to various platforms and forums, comments made by individuals to posts, and online articles.

Personal Communication (MLA)

Use the following guidelines to cite email, text messages, and letters that you sent or received.

Video, Audio, and Other Media Sources (MLA)

Use the following guidelines to cite various media sources.

Other Sources (MLA)

Format of the References List (APA)

After the last page of your paper, start a new page with the centered, boldfaced title References at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples.

• Begin each entry at the left margin, and indent subsequent lines one-half inch. (In Microsoft Word, you can also highlight the entire page when you are finished and select “Hanging” from the Special options on the Indentation section of the Paragraph menu.)
• Alphabetize the entries according to authors’ last names. If two or more authors have the same last name, alphabetize by the initials of their first and middle names. Alphabetize sources with unknown authors by the first word of the title, excluding a, an, or the.
• Double-space the entire page.

Core Elements (APA)

Each entry in the list of references consists of core elements:

• Author. Who is responsible for the work?
• Date of publication. When was the work published?
• Title. What is the work called?
• Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it?

Sometimes core elements are unknown or missing. In such cases, the entry in the reference list entry must be adapted:

• No author? If the source has no known author, cite it by the title. See Models 90 and 98.
• No date of publication? If the source has no publication date, write n.d. instead of the publication date. See Model 110.
• No title? If the work has no title, put a brief description in square brackets.
• No publication information? If the source is a personal communication that only you have a record of, cite the source in your text, not in the references, because it cannot be retrieved by other readers. See “Personal communication” above.

A note on retrieval dates: APA recommends adding a retrieval date for sources that are not archived or are likely to change over time, such as a developing news story. If you add a retrieval date, place it at the end of the references entry in this format: “Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com.” Ask your instructors if they require retrieval dates.

Authors (APA)

Give the author’s last name, comma, and first and middle initials if available. For works with more than one author, put a comma and an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name, even when there are two authors.

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers (APA)

Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines, and they appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.

Books and Parts of Books (APA)

Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, a chapter in a collection, a published conference paper, and so on.

Web Sources (APA)

Use the following guidelines for works published only online that do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, or magazine.

Social Media (APA)

When you cite a social media post as a source, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of post and whether images were attached to it.

Video, Audio, and Other Media Sources (APA)

When you cite nonprint sources, such as visual and multimedia sources, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of source, such as a film, a TV episode, a song, a painting, a photograph, and so on.