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10.1 The Physiological Actions Implementing Movement – Contraction of Muscles

Anders, S., Kunz, M., Gehl, A., Sehner, S., Raupach, T., & Beck-Bornholdt, H. P. (2013). Estimation of the time since death--reconsidering the re-establishment of rigor mortis. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 127(1), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-011-0632-z

Gordon, T. (2020). Peripheral nerve regeneration and muscle reinnervation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(22), 8652. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21228652

Minetto, M. A., Holobar, A., Botter, A., & Farina, D. (2013). Origin and development of muscle cramps. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 41(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1097/JES.0b013e3182724817

Mukund, K., & Subramaniam, S. (2020). Skeletal muscle: A review of molecular structure and function, in health and disease. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine, 12(1), e1462. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsbm.1462

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Scott, W., Stevens, J., & Binder-Macleod, S. A. (2001). Human skeletal muscle fiber type classifications. Physical Therapy, 81(11), 1810–1816.

Van Cutsem, M., Duchateau, J., & Hainaut, K. (1998). Changes in single motor unit behaviour contribute to the increase in contraction speed after dynamic training in humans. The Journal of Physiology, 513(Pt 1), 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.295by.x

10.2 Eliciting Contractions from Lower Levels – Lower Motoneurons and Reflex Arcs

Aach, M., Cruciger, O., Sczesny-Kaiser, M., Höffken, O., Meindl, R. C., Tegenthoff, M., Schwenkreis, P., Sankai, Y., & Schildhauer, T. A. (2014). Voluntary driven exoskeleton as a new tool for rehabilitation in chronic spinal cord injury: A pilot study. The Spine Journal: Official Journal of the North American Spine Society, 14(12), 2847–2853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2014.03.042

Adams, M. M., & Hicks, A. L. (2005). Spasticity after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 43(10), 577–586. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3101757

Ahmed, Z. (2016). Modulation of gamma and alpha spinal motor neurons activity by trans-spinal direct current stimulation: Effects on reflexive actions and locomotor activity. Physiological Reports, 4(3), e12696. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.12696

Collins, J. J., & Richmond, S. A. (1994). Hard-wired central pattern generators for quadrupedal locomotion. Biological Cybernetics, 71(5), 375–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00198915

Côté, M. P., Ménard, A., & Gossard, J. P. (2003). Spinal cats on the treadmill: Changes in load pathways. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 23(7), 2789–2796. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-07-02789.2003

Dimitrijevic, M. R., Gerasimenko, Y., & Pinter, M. M. (1998). Evidence for a spinal central pattern generator in humans. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 860, 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09062.x

Frigon, A., & Rossignol, S. (2008). Locomotor and reflex adaptation after partial denervation of ankle extensors in chronic spinal cats. Journal of Neurophysiology, 100(3), 1513–1522. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.90321.2008

Gilman, S. (2002). Joint position sense and vibration sense: Anatomical organisation and assessment. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 73(5), 473–477. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.73.5.473

Hunt, C. C. (1990). Mammalian muscle spindle: Peripheral mechanisms. Physiological Reviews, 70(3), 643–663. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1990.70.3.643

Klarner, T., & Zehr, E. P. (2018). Sherlock Holmes and the curious case of the human locomotor central pattern generator. Journal of Neurophysiology, 120(1), 53–77. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00554.2017

Lephart, S. M., & Jari, R. (2002). The role of proprioception in shoulder instability. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine, 10(1), 2–4. https://doi.org/10.1053/otsm.2002.29169

Lephart, S. M., Swanik, C. B., & Boonriong, T. (1998). Anatomy and physiology of proprioception and neuromuscular control. International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training, 3(5), 6–9. https://doi.org/10.1123/att.3.5.6

Michel-Titus, A., Revest, P., & Shortland, P. (2010). Motor systems I: Descending pathways and cerebellum. Chapter 9 In: The nervous system (Second Edition). Maryland Heights, MO: Elsevier, Science Direct. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-3373-5.00009-5

Minassian, K., Hofstoetter, U. S., Dzeladini, F., Guertin, P. A., & Ijspeert, A. (2017). The human central pattern generator for locomotion: Does it exist and contribute to walking?. The Neuroscientist: A Review Journal Bringing Neurobiology, Neurology and Psychiatry, 23(6), 649–663. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858417699790

Nudo, R. J., & Masterton, R. B. (1990). Descending pathways to the spinal cord, III: Sites of origin of the corticospinal tract. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 296(4), 559–583. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.902960405

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Sacks, O. (1987). The disembodied lady. Chapter 3 in: The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

Serrao, M., Spaich, E. G., & Andersen, O. K. (2012). Modulating effects of bodyweight unloading on the lower limb nociceptive withdrawal reflex during symmetrical stance. Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology, 123(5), 1035–1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2011.09.006

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Termsarasab, P., Thammongkolchai, T., & Frucht, S. J. (2015). Spinal-generated movement disorders: A clinical review. Journal of Clinical Movement Disorders, 2, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40734-015-0028-1

Thompson, A. K., Pomerantz, F. R., & Wolpaw, J. R. (2013). Operant conditioning of a spinal reflex can improve locomotion after spinal cord injury in humans. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 33(6), 2365–2375. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3968-12.2013

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10.3 Our Brain Gets Involved – Responsibilities of Upper Motor Systems

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Albin, R. L., & Mink, J. W. (2006). Recent advances in Tourette syndrome research. Trends in Neurosciences, 29(3), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2006.01.001

Bares, M., Lungu, O. V., Husárová, I., & Gescheidt, T. (2010). Predictive motor timing performance dissociates between early diseases of the cerebellum and Parkinson's disease. Cerebellum (London, England), 9(1), 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12311-009-0133-5

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Brunamonti, E., Chiricozzi, F. R., Clausi, S., Olivito, G., Giusti, M. A., Molinari, M., Ferraina, S., & Leggio, M. (2014). Cerebellar damage impairs executive control and monitoring of movement generation. PLOS ONE, 9(1), e85997. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085997

Collinger, J. L., Wodlinger, B., Downey, J. E., Wang, W., Tyler-Kabara, E. C., Weber, D. J., McMorland, A. J., Velliste, M., Boninger, M. L., & Schwartz, A. B. (2013). High-performance neuroprosthetic control by an individual with tetraplegia. Lancet (London, England), 381(9866), 557–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61816-9

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Dahms, C., Brodoehl, S., Witte, O. W., & Klingner, C. M. (2020). The importance of different learning stages for motor sequence learning after stroke. Human Brain Mapping, 41(1), 270–286. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24793

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Downey, J. E., Weiss, J. M., Muelling, K., Venkatraman, A., Valois, J. S., Hebert, M., Bagnell, J. A., Schwartz, A. B., & Collinger, J. L. (2016). Blending of brain-machine interface and vision-guided autonomous robotics improves neuroprosthetic arm performance during grasping. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 13, 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-016-0134-9

Ekman, F. K., Ojala, D. S., Adil, M. M., Lopez, P. A., Schaffer, D. V., & Gaj, T. (2019). CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome editing increases lifespan and improves motor deficits in a Huntington's disease mouse model. Molecular Therapy. Nucleic Acids, 17, 829–839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omtn.2019.07.009

Fahn, S. (2008). The history of dopamine and levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 23(Suppl 3), S497–S508. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.22028

Freed, C. R., Zhou, W., & Breeze, R. E. (2011). Dopamine cell transplantation for Parkinson's disease: The importance of controlled clinical trials. Neurotherapeutics: The Journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics, 8(4), 549–561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-011-0082-9

Fujisawa, Y., & Okajima, Y. (2015). Characteristics of handwriting of people with cerebellar ataxia: Three-dimensional movement analysis of the pen tip, finger, and wrist. Physical Therapy, 95(11), 1547–1558. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20140118

Georgopoulos, A. P., Caminiti, R., Kalaska, J. F., & Massey, J. T. (1983). Spatial coding of movement: A hypothesis concerning the coding of movement direction by motor cortical populations. Experimental Brain Research, 49(Suppl. 7), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-68915-4_34

Georgopoulos, A. P., Kalaska, J. F., Caminiti, R., & Massey, J. T. (1982). On the relations between the direction of two-dimensional arm movements and cell discharge in primate motor cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2(11), 1527–1537. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.02-11-01527.1982

Georgopoulos, A. P., Kettner, R. E., & Schwartz, A. B. (1988). Primate motor cortex and free arm movements to visual targets in three-dimensional space. II. Coding of the direction of movement by a neuronal population. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 8(8), 2928–2937. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-08-02928.1988

Georgopoulos, A. P., Ashe, J., Smyrnis, N., & Taira, M. (1992). The motor cortex and the coding of force. Science (New York, N.Y.), 256(5064), 1692–1695. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.256.5064.1692

Geyer, S., Matelli, M., Luppino, G., & Zilles, K. (2000). Functional neuroanatomy of the primate isocortical motor system. Anatomy and Embryology, 202(6), 443–474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004290000127

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Groenewegen, H. J. (2003). The basal ganglia and motor control. Neural Plasticity, 10(1-2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1155/NP.2003.107

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Jackson, P. L., Lafleur, M. F., Malouin, F., Richards, C. L., & Doyon, J. (2003). Functional cerebral reorganization following motor sequence learning through mental practice with motor imagery. NeuroImage, 20(2), 1171–1180. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00369-0

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Moisello, C., Perfetti, B., Marinelli, L., Sanguineti, V., Bove, M., Feigin, A., Di Rocco, A., Eidelberg, D., & Ghilardi, M. F. (2011). Basal ganglia and kinematics modulation: Insights from Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 17(8), 642–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2011.06.021

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