6.1 Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood

Early childhood is a time to explore taking the initiative in social interactions and taking on responsibility in new challenges. Children who learn to reach out and initiate social contact tend to be more confident, whereas children who hesitate to take responsibility and/or become anxious making connections tend to feel more guilt.
This is also a time of concrete self-concept development. Children tend to start to understand the self in terms of basic descriptions such as name, age, appearance, and interests. Self-esteem emerges in early childhood and is influenced mainly by parental approval and social comparisons.
Self-regulation matures in early childhood and includes impulse control and inhibition. Self-conscious emotions mature through the development of metacognition.
The social world in young childhood expands to include preschool and daycare environments.
Children who are neurodiverse may experience early social and emotional development differently. In one example of neurodivergence, autistic children may struggle with socializing with others.

6.2 Identity in Context: Gender Development and Racial Identity in Early Childhood

Gender is different from biological sex and refers to the psychological, social, and identity components of being a girl or a boy.
According to gender schema theory, children understand their gender identity, its stability, and its constancy by early childhood.
According to ethnic-racial identity theory, children begin to understand their ethnic and racial identity in early childhood, but this understanding is more apparent in racialized children.
Parents and families influence young children’s understanding of gender and race by modeling behaviors, teaching about heritage, and sharing expectations and biases.
Children’s media affect children’s understanding of gender and race. Representation matters, and more progressive and nuanced portrayals of gender diverse and racialized characters are needed.

Parenting styles vary in the amount of warmth, structure, and support for autonomy they provide. Parenting styles vary by culture.
Parents shape children’s behavior positively or negatively through using reinforcement or punishment.
Reinforcement that is immediate, consistent, and rewarding works best. Punishment works best when it is logical, delivered in a calm but firm way, and delivered by a person with a positive relationship with the child.
Corporal punishment, or physical punishment, increases risks of a variety of negative child outcomes, including defiance, anxiety, aggression, and poor family relationships.
Child abuse can include physical, sexual, or emotional abuse or neglect, and is a prevalent health risk for children.
Siblings help to provide companionship and opportunities for cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Divorce can be a traumatic experience for children, but outcomes can be improved when parents prioritize their child’s well-being and involve extended family members and others to help.

Peers are same-age acquaintances, and friends are peers with whom children form a mutual liking and emotional attachment. Friendship quality matures over time and benefits development in many ways.
Play is valuable for development and helps to foster many skills. Some children prefer to play in dyads or groups, whereas others prefer solitary play.
Aggression has many subtypes and is linked with family dynamics, environment, genes, epigenetics, and peer relations.
Prosocial skills such as cooperation, empathy, and altruism are beneficial and linked with social competence.

Children consume a great deal of media content in many diversified forms.
Some media consumption is detrimental to child development, especially if used as a babysitter and to replace face-to-face interaction.
Some media consumption can be beneficial in helping with cognitive development, social development, and creativity.
Messages in the media can influence the way children think and perceive their world.