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12.1 What Is Stress?

Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 355–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355

Jamieson, J. P., Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Mind over matter: Reappraising arousal improves cardiovascular and cognitive responses to stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 417–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025719

Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000245

Roelofs, K. (2017). Freeze for action: Neurobiological mechanisms in animal and human freezing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 372(1718), 20160206. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0206

Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress (1st ed.). Lippincott.

12.2 Neural Mechanisms and Circuitry of the Stress Response

Anacker, C., Luna, V. M., Stevens, G. S., Millette, A., Shores, R., Jimenez, J. C., Chen, B., & Hen, R. (2018). Hippocampal neurogenesis confers stress resilience by inhibiting the ventral dentate gyrus. Nature, 559(7712), 98–102. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0262-4

Brischoux, F., Chakraborty, S., Brierley, D. I., & Ungless, M. A. (2009). Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTA by noxious stimuli. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(12), 4894–4899. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811507106

Cameron, H. A., & Glover, L. R. (2015). Adult neurogenesis: Beyond learning and memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015006

Chetty, S., Friedman, A. R., Taravosh-Lahn, K., Kirby, E. D., Mirescu, C., Guo, F., Krupik, D., Nicholas, A., Geraghty, A., Krishnamurthy, A., Tsai, M. K., Covarrubias, D., Wong, A., Francis, D., Sapolsky, R. M., Palmer, T. D., Pleasure, D., & Kaufer, D. (2014). Stress and glucocorticoids promote oligodendrogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Molecular Psychiatry, 19(12), 1275–1283. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2013.190

Cope, E. C., & Gould, E. (2019). Adult neurogenesis, glia, and the extracellular matrix. Cell Stem Cell, 24(5), 690–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2019.03.023

Cui, W., Aida, T., Ito, H., Kobayashi, K., Wada, Y., Kato, S., Nakano, T., Zhu, M., Isa, K., Kobayashi, K., Isa, T., Tanaka, K., & Aizawa, H. (2020). Dopaminergic signaling in the nucleus accumbens modulates stress-coping strategies during inescapable stress. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 40(38), 7241–7254. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0444-20.2020

Donley, M. P., Schulkin, J., & Rosen, J. B. (2005). Glucocorticoid receptor antagonism in the basolateral amygdala and ventral hippocampus interferes with long-term memory of contextual fear. Behavioural Brain Research, 164(2), 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2005.06.020

Finlay, J. M., Zigmond, M. J., & Abercrombie, E. D. (1995). Increased dopamine and norepinephrine release in medial prefrontal cortex induced by acute and chronic stress: Effects of diazepam. Neuroscience, 64(3), 619–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4522(94)00331-x

Füzesi, T., Daviu, N., Wamsteeker Cusulin, J. I., Bonin, R. P., & Bains, J. S. (2016). Hypothalamic CRH neurons orchestrate complex behaviours after stress. Nature Communications, 7, 11937. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11937

Gilpin, N. W., Herman, M. A., & Roberto, M. (2015). The central amygdala as an integrative hub for anxiety and alcohol use disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 77(10), 859–869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.008

Groeneweg, F. L., Karst, H., de Kloet, E. R., & Joëls, M. (2011). Rapid non-genomic effects of corticosteroids and their role in the central stress response. The Journal of Endocrinology, 209(2), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1530/JOE-10-0472

Guiard, B. P., El Mansari, M., & Blier, P. (2008). Cross-talk between dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems in the rat ventral tegmental area, locus ceruleus, and dorsal hippocampus. Molecular Pharmacology, 74(5), 1463–1475. https://doi.org/10.1124/mol.108.048033

Haubensak, W., Kunwar, P. S., Cai, H., Ciocchi, S., Wall, N. R., Ponnusamy, R., Biag, J., Dong, H. W., Deisseroth, K., Callaway, E. M., Fanselow, M. S., Lüthi, A., & Anderson, D. J. (2010). Genetic dissection of an amygdala microcircuit that gates conditioned fear. Nature, 468(7321), 270–276. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09553

Holly, E. N., & Miczek, K. A. (2016). Ventral tegmental area dopamine revisited: Effects of acute and repeated stress. Psychopharmacology, 233(2), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-015-4151-3

Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Evans, K. C., Hoge, E. A., Dusek, J. A., Morgan, L., Pitman, R. K., & Lazar, S. W. (2010). Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5(1), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsp034

Karst, H., Berger, S., Turiault, M., Tronche, F., Schütz, G., & Joëls, M. (2005). Mineralocorticoid receptors are indispensable for nongenomic modulation of hippocampal glutamate transmission by corticosterone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(52), 19204–19207. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0507572102

Kirby, E. D., Muroy, S. E., Sun, W. G., Covarrubias, D., Leong, M. J., Barchas, L. A., & Kaufer, D. (2013). Acute stress enhances adult rat hippocampal neurogenesis and activation of newborn neurons via secreted astrocytic FGF2. eLife, 2, e00362. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00362

Kolber, B. J., Roberts, M. S., Howell, M. P., Wozniak, D. F., Sands, M. S., & Muglia, L. J. (2008). Central amygdala glucocorticoid receptor action promotes fear-associated CRH activation and conditioning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(33), 12004–12009. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0803216105

Long, K. L. P., Chao, L. L., Kazama, Y., An, A., Hu, K. Y., Peretz, L., Muller, D. C. Y., Roan, V. D., Misra, R., Toth, C. E., Breton, J. M., Casazza, W., Mostafavi, S., Huber, B. R., Woodward, S. H., Neylan, T. C., & Kaufer, D. (2021). Regional gray matter oligodendrocyte- and myelin-related measures are associated with differential susceptibility to stress-induced behavior in rats and humans. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), 631. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01745-5

Venero, C., & Borrell, J. (1999). Rapid glucocorticoid effects on excitatory amino acid levels in the hippocampus: A microdialysis study in freely moving rats. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 11(7), 2465–2473. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00668.x

Jo, Y. S., Namboodiri, V. M. K., Stuber, G. D., & Zweifel, L. S. (2020). Persistent activation of central amygdala CRF neurons helps drive the immediate fear extinction deficit. Nature Communications, 11(1), 422. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14393-y

Morey, R. A., Gold, A. L., LaBar, K. S., Beall, S. K., Brown, V. M., Haswell, C. C., Nasser, J. D., Wagner, H. R., McCarthy, G., & Mid-Atlantic MIRECC Workgroup (2012). Amygdala volume changes in posttraumatic stress disorder in a large case-controlled veterans group. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(11), 1169–1178. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.50

Quiroz, C., Orrú, M., Rea, W., Ciudad-Roberts, A., Yepes, G., Britt, J. P., & Ferré, S. (2016). Local control of extracellular dopamine levels in the medial nucleus accumbens by a glutamatergic projection from the infralimbic cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 36(3), 851–859. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2850-15.2016

Sapolsky, R. M., Krey, L. C., & McEwen, B. S. (1984). Glucocorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenocortical stress response. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 81(19), 6174–6177. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.81.19.6174

Snyder, J. S., Soumier, A., Brewer, M., Pickel, J., & Cameron, H. A. (2011). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis buffers stress responses and depressive behaviour. Nature, 476(7361), 458–461. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10287

Tovote, P., Fadok, J. P., & Lüthi, A. (2015). Neuronal circuits for fear and anxiety. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(6), 317–331. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3945

Popoli, M., Yan, Z., McEwen, B. S., & Sanacora, G. (2011). The stressed synapse: The impact of stress and glucocorticoids on glutamate transmission. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3138

12.3 Interindividual Variability and Resilience in Response to Stress

Amat, J., Paul, E., Zarza, C., Watkins, L. R., & Maier, S. F. (2006). Previous experience with behavioral control over stress blocks the behavioral and dorsal raphe nucleus activating effects of later uncontrollable stress: Role of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 26(51), 13264–13272. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3630-06.2006

Amat, J., Baratta, M. V., Paul, E., Bland, S. T., Watkins, L. R., & Maier, S. F. (2005). Medial prefrontal cortex determines how stressor controllability affects behavior and dorsal raphe nucleus. Nature Neuroscience, 8(3), 365–371. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1399

Bangasser, D. A., & Wiersielis, K. R. (2018). Sex differences in stress responses: A critical role for corticotropin-releasing factor. Hormones (Athens, Greece), 17(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42000-018-0002-z

Basso, J. C., McHale, A., Ende, V., Oberlin, D. J., & Suzuki, W. A. (2019). Brief, daily meditation enhances attention, memory, mood, and emotional regulation in non-experienced meditators. Behavioural Brain Research, 356, 208–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2018.08.023

Bergman, K., Sarkar, P., Glover, V., & O'Connor, T. G. (2010). Maternal prenatal cortisol and infant cognitive development: Moderation by infant-mother attachment. Biological Psychiatry, 67(11), 1026–1032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.01.002

Brouwers, E. P., van Baar, A. L., & Pop, V. J. (2001). Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and subsequent infant development. Infant Behavior and Development, 24, 95–106.

Buescher, J. L., Musselman, L. P., Wilson, C. A., Lang, T., Keleher, M., Baranski, T. J., & Duncan, J. G. (2013). Evidence for transgenerational metabolic programming in Drosophila. Disease Models & Mechanisms, 6(5), 1123–1132. https://doi.org/10.1242/dmm.011924

Carr, C. P., Martins, C. M., Stingel, A. M., Lemgruber, V. B., & Juruena, M. F. (2013). The role of early life stress in adult psychiatric disorders: A systematic review according to childhood trauma subtypes. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(12), 1007–1020. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000049

Class, Q. A., Lichtenstein, P., Långström, N., & D'Onofrio, B. M. (2011). Timing of prenatal maternal exposure to severe life events and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A population study of 2.6 million pregnancies. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73(3), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e31820a62ce

Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Waffarn, F., & Sandman, C. A. (2011). Prenatal maternal stress programs infant stress regulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52(2), 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02314.x

Davitz, J. R., & Mason, D. J. (1955). Socially facilitated reduction of a fear response in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48(3), 149–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046411

Deschamps, S., Woodside, B., & Walker, C. D. (2003). Pups presence eliminates the stress hyporesponsiveness of early lactating females to a psychological stress representing a threat to the pups. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 15(5), 486–497. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.01022.x

Eisenberger, N. I., Taylor, S. E., Gable, S. L., Hilmert, C. J., & Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Neural pathways link social support to attenuated neuroendocrine stress responses. NeuroImage, 35(4), 1601–1612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.01.038

Enoch, M. A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6

Fan, Y., Tang, Y. Y., & Posner, M. I. (2014). Cortisol level modulated by integrative meditation in a dose-dependent fashion. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 30(1), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2497

Fleischer, A. W., & Frick, K. M. (2023). New perspectives on sex differences in learning and memory. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM, 34(9), 526–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2023.06.003

Fletcher, J. M. (2010). Adolescent depression and educational attainment: Results using sibling fixed effects. Health Economics, 19(7), 855–871. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1526

Forkosh, O., Karamihalev, S., Roeh, S., Alon, U., Anpilov, S., Touma, C., Nussbaumer, M., Flachskamm, C., Kaplick, P. M., Shemesh, Y., & Chen, A. (2019). Identity domains capture individual differences from across the behavioral repertoire. Nature Neuroscience, 22(12), 2023–2028. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0516-y

Goel, N., Workman, J. L., Lee, T. T., Innala, L., & Viau, V. (2014). Sex differences in the HPA axis. Comprehensive Physiology, 4(3), 1121–1155. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c130054

Hackney, A. C. (2006). Stress and the neuroendocrine system: The role of exercise as a stressor and modifier of stress. Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism, 1(6), 783–792. https://doi.org/10.1586/17446651.1.6.783

Haykin, H., & Rolls, A. (2021). The neuroimmune response during stress: A physiological perspective. Immunity, 54(9), 1933–1947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2021.08.023

Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49(12), 1023–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01157-x

House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science (New York, N.Y.), 241(4865), 540–545. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3399889

Iriki, M., & Simon, E. (2012). Differential control of efferent sympathetic activity revisited. The Journal of Physiological Sciences: JPS, 62(4), 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12576-012-0208-9

Jamieson, J. P., Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Mind over matter: Reappraising arousal improves cardiovascular and cognitive responses to stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 417–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025719

Jezova, D., Radikova, Z., & Vigas, M. (2007). Growth hormone response to different consecutive stress stimuli in healthy men: Is there any difference? Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 10(2), 205–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890701292168

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness (Revised and updated edition). Bantam Books trade paperback.

Kalisch, R. (2009). The functional neuroanatomy of reappraisal: Time matters. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(8), 1215–1226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.06.003

Keller, A., Litzelman, K., Wisk, L. E., Maddox, T., Cheng, E. R., Creswell, P. D., & Witt, W. P. (2012). Does the perception that stress affects health matter? The association with health and mortality. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 31(5), 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026743

Kim, J. W., Ko, M. J., Gonzales, E. L., Kang, R. J., Kim, D. G., Kim, Y., Seung, H., Oh, H. A., Eun, P. H., & Shin, C. Y. (2018). Social support rescues acute stress-induced cognitive impairments by modulating ERK1/2 phosphorylation in adolescent mice. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 12003. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-30524-4

Klosin, A., Casas, E., Hidalgo-Carcedo, C., Vavouri, T., & Lehner, B. (2017). Transgenerational transmission of environmental information in C. elegans. Science (New York, N.Y.), 356(6335), 320–323. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6412

Liu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., Sharma, S., Pearson, D., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1997). Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science (New York, N.Y.), 277(5332), 1659–1662. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5332.1659

Measserman, J. H. (1943). Behavior and neurosis. University of Chicago Press.

Miller, D. B., & O'Callaghan, J. P. (2005). Aging, stress and the hippocampus. Ageing Research Reviews, 4(2), 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2005.03.002

Morris, W. N., Worchel, S., Bios, J. L., Pearson, J. A., Rountree, C. A., Samaha, G. M., Wachtler, J., & Wright, S. L. (1976). Collective coping with stress: Group reactions to fear, anxiety, and ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33(6), 674–679. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.33.6.674

Muroy, S. E., Long, K. L., Kaufer, D., & Kirby, E. D. (2016). Moderate stress-induced social bonding and oxytocin signaling are disrupted by predator odor in male rats. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(8), 2160–2170. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2016.16

Nabi, H., Kivimäki, M., Batty, G. D., Shipley, M. J., Britton, A., Brunner, E. J., Vahtera, J., Lemogne, C., Elbaz, A., & Singh-Manoux, A. (2013). Increased risk of coronary heart disease among individuals reporting adverse impact of stress on their health: The Whitehall II prospective cohort study. European Heart Journal, 34(34), 2697–2705. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht216

O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M., & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years. Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 180, 502–508. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.180.6.502

Perroud, N., Rutembesa, E., Paoloni-Giacobino, A., Mutabaruka, J., Mutesa, L., Stenz, L., Malafosse, A., & Karege, F. (2014). The Tutsi genocide and transgenerational transmission of maternal stress: Epigenetics and biology of the HPA axis. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry, 15(4), 334–345. https://doi.org/10.3109/15622975.2013.866693

Pryce, C. R., Rüedi-Bettschen, D., Dettling, A. C., Weston, A., Russig, H., Ferger, B., & Feldon, J. (2005). Long-term effects of early-life environmental manipulations in rodents and primates: Potential animal models in depression research. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29(4-5), 649–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.011

Raichlen, D. A., Foster, A. D., Seillier, A., Giuffrida, A., & Gerdeman, G. L. (2013). Exercise-induced endocannabinoid signaling is modulated by intensity. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 113(4), 869–875. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2495-5

Rechavi, O., Houri-Ze'evi, L., Anava, S., Goh, W. S. S., Kerk, S. Y., Hannon, G. J., & Hobert, O. (2014). Starvation-induced transgenerational inheritance of small RNAs in C. elegans. Cell, 158(2), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.06.020

Ronald, A., Pennell, C. E., & Whitehouse, A. J. (2011). Prenatal maternal stress associated with ADHD and autistic traits in early childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 223. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00223

Sapolsky, R. M. (2015). Stress and the brain: Individual variability and the inverted-U. Nature Neuroscience, 18(10), 1344–1346. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4109

Tang, Y. Y., Ma, Y., Wang, J., Fan, Y., Feng, S., Lu, Q., Yu, Q., Sui, D., Rothbart, M. K., Fan, M., & Posner, M. I. (2007). Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(43), 17152–17156. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707678104

Taylor, S. E. (2002). The tending instinct: How nurturing is essential for who we are and how we live. Times Books.

Taylor, S. E. (2011). Social support: A review. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Health Psychology (pp. 189–214). Oxford University Press.

Traustadóttir, T., Bosch, P. R., & Matt, K. S. (2005). The HPA axis response to stress in women: Effects of aging and fitness. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(4), 392–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.11.002

Volkow, N. D., Hampson, A. J., & Baler, R. D. (2017). Don't worry, be happy: Endocannabinoids and cannabis at the intersection of stress and reward. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 57, 285–308. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010716-104615

von Dawans, B., Fischbacher, U., Kirschbaum, C., Fehr, E., & Heinrichs, M. (2012). The social dimension of stress reactivity: Acute stress increases prosocial behavior in humans. Psychological Science, 23(6), 651–660. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611431576

Weaver, I. C., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., Dymov, S., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7(8), 847–854. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1276

Weinstock, M. (2005). The potential influence of maternal stress hormones on development and mental health of the offspring. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 19(4), 296–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2004.09.006

Weinstock, M. (2008). The long-term behavioural consequences of prenatal stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(6), 1073–1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.03.002

Yehuda, R., & Bierer, L. M. (2008). Transgenerational transmission of cortisol and PTSD risk. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67009-5

Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N. P., Bierer, L. M., Bader, H. N., Klengel, T., Holsboer, F., & Binder, E. B. (2016). Holocaust exposure induced intergenerational effects on FKBP5 methylation. Biological Psychiatry, 80(5), 372–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.005

Zannas, A. S., Wiechmann, T., Gassen, N. C., & Binder, E. B. (2016). Gene-stress-epigenetic regulation of FKBP5: Clinical and translational implications. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.235

12.4 Clinical Implications of Stress

Adler, L. A., Kunz, M., Chua, H. C., Rotrosen, J., & Resnick, S. G. (2004). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Is ADHD a vulnerability factor?. Journal of Attention Disorders, 8(1), 11–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/108705470400800102

Alkadhi, K. A. (2012). Chronic psychosocial stress exposes Alzheimer's disease phenotype in a novel at-risk model. Frontiers in Bioscience (Elite Edition), 4(1), 214–229. https://doi.org/10.2741/371

Chaouloff, F., Berton, O., & Mormède, P. (1999). Serotonin and stress. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(2 Suppl), 28S–32S. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(99)00008-1

Cuffe, S. P., McCullough, E. L., & Pumariega, A. J. (1994). Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3(3), 327–336.

Duffing, T. M., Greiner, S. G., Mathias, C. W., & Dougherty, D. M. (2014). Stress, substance abuse, and addiction. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 18, 237–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2014_276

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