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University Physics Volume 2

16.4 Momentum and Radiation Pressure

University Physics Volume 216.4 Momentum and Radiation Pressure

Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. Thermodynamics
    1. 1 Temperature and Heat
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
      3. 1.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales
      4. 1.3 Thermal Expansion
      5. 1.4 Heat Transfer, Specific Heat, and Calorimetry
      6. 1.5 Phase Changes
      7. 1.6 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    2. 2 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas
      3. 2.2 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed
      4. 2.3 Heat Capacity and Equipartition of Energy
      5. 2.4 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    3. 3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 Thermodynamic Systems
      3. 3.2 Work, Heat, and Internal Energy
      4. 3.3 First Law of Thermodynamics
      5. 3.4 Thermodynamic Processes
      6. 3.5 Heat Capacities of an Ideal Gas
      7. 3.6 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    4. 4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
      3. 4.2 Heat Engines
      4. 4.3 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
      5. 4.4 Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
      6. 4.5 The Carnot Cycle
      7. 4.6 Entropy
      8. 4.7 Entropy on a Microscopic Scale
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
  3. Electricity and Magnetism
    1. 5 Electric Charges and Fields
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 Electric Charge
      3. 5.2 Conductors, Insulators, and Charging by Induction
      4. 5.3 Coulomb's Law
      5. 5.4 Electric Field
      6. 5.5 Calculating Electric Fields of Charge Distributions
      7. 5.6 Electric Field Lines
      8. 5.7 Electric Dipoles
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
    2. 6 Gauss's Law
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 Electric Flux
      3. 6.2 Explaining Gauss’s Law
      4. 6.3 Applying Gauss’s Law
      5. 6.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    3. 7 Electric Potential
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 Electric Potential Energy
      3. 7.2 Electric Potential and Potential Difference
      4. 7.3 Calculations of Electric Potential
      5. 7.4 Determining Field from Potential
      6. 7.5 Equipotential Surfaces and Conductors
      7. 7.6 Applications of Electrostatics
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    4. 8 Capacitance
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 Capacitors and Capacitance
      3. 8.2 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
      4. 8.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
      5. 8.4 Capacitor with a Dielectric
      6. 8.5 Molecular Model of a Dielectric
      7. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    5. 9 Current and Resistance
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 Electrical Current
      3. 9.2 Model of Conduction in Metals
      4. 9.3 Resistivity and Resistance
      5. 9.4 Ohm's Law
      6. 9.5 Electrical Energy and Power
      7. 9.6 Superconductors
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    6. 10 Direct-Current Circuits
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 Electromotive Force
      3. 10.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel
      4. 10.3 Kirchhoff's Rules
      5. 10.4 Electrical Measuring Instruments
      6. 10.5 RC Circuits
      7. 10.6 Household Wiring and Electrical Safety
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    7. 11 Magnetic Forces and Fields
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 Magnetism and Its Historical Discoveries
      3. 11.2 Magnetic Fields and Lines
      4. 11.3 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
      5. 11.4 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
      6. 11.5 Force and Torque on a Current Loop
      7. 11.6 The Hall Effect
      8. 11.7 Applications of Magnetic Forces and Fields
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    8. 12 Sources of Magnetic Fields
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 The Biot-Savart Law
      3. 12.2 Magnetic Field Due to a Thin Straight Wire
      4. 12.3 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Currents
      5. 12.4 Magnetic Field of a Current Loop
      6. 12.5 Ampère’s Law
      7. 12.6 Solenoids and Toroids
      8. 12.7 Magnetism in Matter
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    9. 13 Electromagnetic Induction
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 Faraday’s Law
      3. 13.2 Lenz's Law
      4. 13.3 Motional Emf
      5. 13.4 Induced Electric Fields
      6. 13.5 Eddy Currents
      7. 13.6 Electric Generators and Back Emf
      8. 13.7 Applications of Electromagnetic Induction
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    10. 14 Inductance
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 Mutual Inductance
      3. 14.2 Self-Inductance and Inductors
      4. 14.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field
      5. 14.4 RL Circuits
      6. 14.5 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
      7. 14.6 RLC Series Circuits
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    11. 15 Alternating-Current Circuits
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 AC Sources
      3. 15.2 Simple AC Circuits
      4. 15.3 RLC Series Circuits with AC
      5. 15.4 Power in an AC Circuit
      6. 15.5 Resonance in an AC Circuit
      7. 15.6 Transformers
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    12. 16 Electromagnetic Waves
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves
      3. 16.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves
      4. 16.3 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves
      5. 16.4 Momentum and Radiation Pressure
      6. 16.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
      7. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
  4. A | Units
  5. B | Conversion Factors
  6. C | Fundamental Constants
  7. D | Astronomical Data
  8. E | Mathematical Formulas
  9. F | Chemistry
  10. G | The Greek Alphabet
  11. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
    7. Chapter 7
    8. Chapter 8
    9. Chapter 9
    10. Chapter 10
    11. Chapter 11
    12. Chapter 12
    13. Chapter 13
    14. Chapter 14
    15. Chapter 15
    16. Chapter 16
  12. Index

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Describe the relationship of the radiation pressure and the energy density of an electromagnetic wave
  • Explain how the radiation pressure of light, while small, can produce observable astronomical effects

Material objects consist of charged particles. An electromagnetic wave incident on the object exerts forces on the charged particles, in accordance with the Lorentz force, Equation 16.11. These forces do work on the particles of the object, increasing its energy, as discussed in the previous section. The energy that sunlight carries is a familiar part of every warm sunny day. A much less familiar feature of electromagnetic radiation is the extremely weak pressure that electromagnetic radiation produces by exerting a force in the direction of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum.

To understand the direction of the force for a very specific case, consider a plane electromagnetic wave incident on a metal in which electron motion, as part of a current, is damped by the resistance of the metal, so that the average electron motion is in phase with the force causing it. This is comparable to an object moving against friction and stopping as soon as the force pushing it stops (Figure 16.13). When the electric field is in the direction of the positive y-axis, electrons move in the negative y-direction, with the magnetic field in the direction of the positive z-axis. By applying the right-hand rule, and accounting for the negative charge of the electron, we can see that the force on the electron from the magnetic field is in the direction of the positive x-axis, which is the direction of wave propagation. When the E field reverses, the B field does too, and the force is again in the same direction. Maxwell’s equations together with the Lorentz force equation imply the existence of radiation pressure much more generally than this specific example, however.

An electromagnetic wave propagates in the positive x direction. Its electric field is shown as a sine wave in the xy plane and magnetic field is shown as a sine wave in the xz plane. A vector S points in the direction of propagation. An electron is shown on the x axis. Four vectors originate from here. Vector E points in the positive y direction, vector B points in the positive z direction, vector F points in the positive x direction and vector v points in the negative y direction. E and B are equal in length. F and v are equal in length and smaller than the other two.
Figure 16.13 Electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave can combine to produce a force in the direction of propagation, as illustrated for the special case of electrons whose motion is highly damped by the resistance of a metal.

Maxwell predicted that an electromagnetic wave carries momentum. An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. The force corresponds to radiation pressure exerted on the object by the wave. The force would be twice as great if the radiation were reflected rather than absorbed.

Maxwell’s prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The schematic arrangement is shown in Figure 16.14. The mirrors suspended from a fiber were housed inside a glass container. Nichols and Hull were able to obtain a small measurable deflection of the mirrors from shining light on one of them. From the measured deflection, they could calculate the unbalanced force on the mirror, and obtained agreement with the predicted value of the force.

Figure shows an apparatus with two circular mirrors attached at either end of a horizontal rod. The rod is suspended from the centre by a fiber.
Figure 16.14 Simplified diagram of the central part of the apparatus Nichols and Hull used to precisely measure radiation pressure and confirm Maxwell’s prediction.

The radiation pressure pradprad applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface turns out to be equal to the energy density of the wave:

prad=u(Perfect absorber).prad=u(Perfect absorber).
16.34

If the material is perfectly reflecting, such as a metal surface, and if the incidence is along the normal to the surface, then the pressure exerted is twice as much because the momentum direction reverses upon reflection:

prad=2u(Perfect reflector).prad=2u(Perfect reflector).
16.35

We can confirm that the units are right:

[u]=Jm3=N·mm3=Nm2=units of pressure.[u]=Jm3=N·mm3=Nm2=units of pressure.

Equation 16.34 and Equation 16.35 give the instantaneous pressure, but because the energy density oscillates rapidly, we are usually interested in the time-averaged radiation pressure, which can be written in terms of intensity:

p=prad={I/cPerfect absorber2I/cPerfect reflector.p=prad={I/cPerfect absorber2I/cPerfect reflector.
16.36

Radiation pressure plays a role in explaining many observed astronomical phenomena, including the appearance of comets. Comets are basically chunks of icy material in which frozen gases and particles of rock and dust are embedded. When a comet approaches the Sun, it warms up and its surface begins to evaporate. The coma of the comet is the hazy area around it from the gases and dust. Some of the gases and dust form tails when they leave the comet. Notice in Figure 16.15 that a comet has two tails. The ion tail (or gas tail in Figure 16.15) is composed mainly of ionized gases. These ions interact electromagnetically with the solar wind, which is a continuous stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun. The force of the solar wind on the ionized gases is strong enough that the ion tail almost always points directly away from the Sun. The second tail is composed of dust particles. Because the dust tail is electrically neutral, it does not interact with the solar wind. However, this tail is affected by the radiation pressure produced by the light from the Sun. Although quite small, this pressure is strong enough to cause the dust tail to be displaced from the path of the comet.

Figure shows a comet with a bright white part labeled nucleus. The part around this is labeled coma. Two tails radiate from here. They are labeled gas tail and dust tail.
Figure 16.15 Evaporation of material being warmed by the Sun forms two tails, as shown in this photo of Comet Ison. (credit: modification of work by E. Slawik—ESO)

Example 16.6

Halley’s Comet

On February 9, 1986, Comet Halley was at its closest point to the Sun, about 9.0×1010m9.0×1010m from the center of the Sun. The average power output of the Sun is 3.8×1026W.3.8×1026W.

(a) Calculate the radiation pressure on the comet at this point in its orbit. Assume that the comet reflects all the incident light.

(b) Suppose that a 10-kg chunk of material of cross-sectional area 4.0×10−2m24.0×10−2m2 breaks loose from the comet. Calculate the force on this chunk due to the solar radiation. Compare this force with the gravitational force of the Sun.

Strategy

Calculate the intensity of solar radiation at the given distance from the Sun and use that to calculate the radiation pressure. From the pressure and area, calculate the force.

Solution

  1. The intensity of the solar radiation is the average solar power per unit area. Hence, at 9.0×1010m9.0×1010m from the center of the Sun, we have
    I=Savg=3.8×1026W4π(9.0×1010m)2=3.7×103W/m2.I=Savg=3.8×1026W4π(9.0×1010m)2=3.7×103W/m2.
    Assuming the comet reflects all the incident radiation, we obtain from Equation 16.36
    p=2Ic=2(3.7×103W/m2)3.00×108m/s=2.5×10−5N/m2.p=2Ic=2(3.7×103W/m2)3.00×108m/s=2.5×10−5N/m2.
  2. The force on the chunk due to the radiation is
    F=pA=(2.5×10−5N/m2)(4.0×10−2m2)=1.0×10−6N,F=pA=(2.5×10−5N/m2)(4.0×10−2m2)=1.0×10−6N,
    whereas the gravitational force of the Sun is
    Fg=GMmr2=(6.67×10−11N·m2/kg2)(2.0×1030kg)(10kg)(9.0×1010m)2=0.16N.Fg=GMmr2=(6.67×10−11N·m2/kg2)(2.0×1030kg)(10kg)(9.0×1010m)2=0.16N.

Significance

The gravitational force of the Sun on the chunk is therefore much greater than the force of the radiation.

After Maxwell showed that light carried momentum as well as energy, a novel idea eventually emerged, initially only as science fiction. Perhaps a spacecraft with a large reflecting light sail could use radiation pressure for propulsion. Such a vehicle would not have to carry fuel. It would experience a constant but small force from solar radiation, instead of the short bursts from rocket propulsion. It would accelerate slowly, but by being accelerated continuously, it would eventually reach great speeds. A spacecraft with small total mass and a sail with a large area would be necessary to obtain a usable acceleration.

When the space program began in the 1960s, the idea started to receive serious attention from NASA. The most recent development in light propelled spacecraft has come from a citizen-funded group, the Planetary Society. It is currently testing the use of light sails to propel a small vehicle built from CubeSats, tiny satellites that NASA places in orbit for various research projects during space launches intended mainly for other purposes.

The LightSail spacecraft shown below (Figure 16.16) consists of three CubeSats bundled together. It has a total mass of only about 5 kg and is about the size as a loaf of bread. Its sails are made of very thin Mylar and open after launch to have a surface area of 32m2.32m2.

Photograph showing two artificial satellites.
Figure 16.16 Two small CubeSat satellites deployed from the International Space Station in May, 2016. The solar sails open out when the CubeSats are far enough away from the Station. (credit: modification of work by NASA)

Interactive

The first LightSail spacecraft was launched in 2015 to test the sail deployment system. It was placed in low-earth orbit in 2015 by hitching a ride on an Atlas 5 rocket launched for an unrelated mission. The test was successful, but the low-earth orbit allowed too much drag on the spacecraft to accelerate it by sunlight. Eventually, it burned in the atmosphere, as expected. The next Planetary Society’s LightSail solar sailing spacecraft is scheduled for 2016. An illustration of the spacecraft, as it is expected to appear in flight, can be seen on the Planetary Society’s website.

Example 16.7

LightSail Acceleration

The intensity of energy from sunlight at a distance of 1 AU from the Sun is 1370W/m21370W/m2. The LightSail spacecraft has sails with total area of 32m232m2 and a total mass of 5.0 kg. Calculate the maximum acceleration LightSail spacecraft could achieve from radiation pressure when it is about 1 AU from the Sun.

Strategy

The maximum acceleration can be expected when the sail is opened directly facing the Sun. Use the light intensity to calculate the radiation pressure and from it, the force on the sails. Then use Newton’s second law to calculate the acceleration.

Solution

The radiation pressure is
F=pA=2uA=2IcA=2(1370W/m2)(32m2)(3.00×108m/s)=2.92×10−4N.F=pA=2uA=2IcA=2(1370W/m2)(32m2)(3.00×108m/s)=2.92×10−4N.

The resulting acceleration is

a=Fm=2.92×10−4N5.0kg=5.8×10−5m/s2.a=Fm=2.92×10−4N5.0kg=5.8×10−5m/s2.

Significance

If this small acceleration continued for a year, the craft would attain a speed of 1829 m/s, or 6600 km/h.

Check Your Understanding 16.5

How would the speed and acceleration of a radiation-propelled spacecraft be affected as it moved farther from the Sun on an interplanetary space flight?

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