12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering

Restriction Enzymes and Ligases

In recombinant DNA technology, DNA molecules are manipulated using naturally occurring enzymes derived mainly from bacteria and viruses. The creation of recombinant DNA molecules is possible due to the use of naturally occurring restriction endonucleases (restriction enzymes), bacterial enzymes produced as a protection mechanism to cut and destroy foreign cytoplasmic DNA that is most commonly a result of bacteriophage infection. Stewart Linn and Werner Arber discovered restriction enzymes in their 1960s studies of how E. coli limits bacteriophage replication on infection. Today, we use restriction enzymes extensively for cutting DNA fragments that can then be spliced into another DNA molecule to form recombinant molecules. Each restriction enzyme cuts DNA at a characteristic recognition site, a specific, usually palindromic, DNA sequence typically between four to six base pairs in length. A palindrome is a sequence of letters that reads the same forward as backward. (The word “level” is an example of a palindrome.) Palindromic DNA sequences contain the same base sequences in the 5ʹ to 3ʹ direction on one strand as in the 5ʹ to 3ʹ direction on the complementary strand. A restriction enzyme recognizes the DNA palindrome and cuts each backbone at identical positions in the palindrome. Some restriction enzymes cut to produce molecules that have complementary overhangs (sticky ends) while others cut without generating such overhangs, instead producing blunt ends (Figure 12.3).

Molecules with complementary sticky ends can easily anneal, or form hydrogen bonds between complementary bases, at their sticky ends. The annealing step allows hybridization of the single-stranded overhangs. Hybridization refers to the joining together of two complementary single strands of DNA. Blunt ends can also attach together, but less efficiently than sticky ends due to the lack of complementary overhangs facilitating the process. In either case, ligation by DNA ligase can then rejoin the two sugar-phosphate backbones of the DNA through covalent bonding, making the molecule a continuous double strand. In 1972, Paul Berg, a Stanford biochemist, was the first to produce a recombinant DNA molecule using this technique, combining the SV40 monkey virus with E. coli bacteriophage lambda to create a hybrid.

Figure 12.3 (a) In this six-nucleotide restriction enzyme site, recognized by the enzyme BamHI, notice that the sequence reads the same in the 5ʹ to 3ʹ direction on both strands. This is known as a palindrome. The cutting of the DNA by the restriction enzyme at the sites (indicated by the black arrows) produces DNA fragments with sticky ends. Another piece of DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme could attach to one of these sticky ends, forming a recombinant DNA molecule. (b) This four-nucleotide recognition site also exhibits a palindromic sequence. The cutting of the DNA by the restriction enzyme HaeIII at the indicated sites produces DNA fragments with blunt ends. Any other piece of blunt DNA could attach to one of the blunt ends produced, forming a recombinant DNA molecule.

Plasmids

After restriction digestion, genes of interest are commonly inserted into plasmids, small pieces of typically circular, double-stranded DNA that replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome (see Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells). In recombinant DNA technology, plasmids are often used as vectors, DNA molecules that carry DNA fragments from one organism to another. Plasmids used as vectors can be genetically engineered by researchers and scientific supply companies to have specialized properties, as illustrated by the commonly used plasmid vector pUC19 (Figure 12.4). Some plasmid vectors contain genes that confer antibiotic resistance; these resistance genes allow researchers to easily find plasmid-containing colonies by plating them on media containing the corresponding antibiotic. The antibiotic kills all host cells that do not harbor the desired plasmid vector, but those that contain the vector are able to survive and grow.

Plasmid vectors used for cloning typically have a polylinker site, or multiple cloning site (MCS). A polylinker site is a short sequence containing multiple unique restriction enzyme recognition sites that are used for inserting DNA into the plasmid after restriction digestion of both the DNA and the plasmid. Having these multiple restriction enzyme recognition sites within the polylinker site makes the plasmid vector versatile, so it can be used for many different cloning experiments involving different restriction enzymes.

This polylinker site is often found within a reporter gene, another gene sequence artificially engineered into the plasmid that encodes a protein that allows for visualization of DNA insertion. The reporter gene allows a researcher to distinguish host cells that contain recombinant plasmids with cloned DNA fragments from host cells that only contain the non-recombinant plasmid vector. The most common reporter gene used in plasmid vectors is the bacterial lacZ gene encoding beta-galactosidase, an enzyme that naturally degrades lactose but can also degrade a colorless synthetic analog X-gal, thereby producing blue colonies on X-gal–containing media. The lacZ reporter gene is disabled when the recombinant DNA is spliced into the plasmid. Because the LacZ protein is not produced when the gene is disabled, X-gal is not degraded and white colonies are produced, which can then be isolated. This blue-white screening method is described later and shown in Figure 12.5. In addition to these features, some plasmids come pre-digested and with an enzyme linked to the linearized plasmid to aid in ligation after the insertion of foreign DNA fragments.

Figure 12.4 The artificially constructed plasmid vector pUC19 is commonly used for cloning foreign DNA. Arrows indicate the directions in which the genes are transcribed. Note the polylinker site, containing multiple unique restriction enzyme recognition sites, found within the lacZ reporter gene. Also note the ampicillin (amp) resistance gene encoded on the plasmid.

Molecular Cloning using Transformation

The most commonly used mechanism for introducing engineered plasmids into a bacterial cell is transformation, a process in which bacteria take up free DNA from their surroundings. In nature, free DNA typically comes from other lysed bacterial cells; in the laboratory, free DNA in the form of recombinant plasmids is introduced to the cell’s surroundings.

Some bacteria, such as Bacillus spp., are naturally competent, meaning they are able to take up foreign DNA. However, not all bacteria are naturally competent. In most cases, bacteria must be made artificially competent in the laboratory by increasing the permeability of the cell membrane. This can be achieved through chemical treatments that neutralize charges on the cell membrane or by exposing the bacteria to an electric field that creates microscopic pores in the cell membrane. These methods yield chemically competent or electrocompetent bacteria, respectively.

Following the transformation protocol, bacterial cells are plated onto an antibiotic-containing medium to inhibit the growth of the many host cells that were not transformed by the plasmid conferring antibiotic resistance. A technique called blue-white screening is then used for lacZ-encoding plasmid vectors such as pUC19. Blue colonies have a functional beta-galactosidase enzyme because the lacZ gene is uninterrupted, with no foreign DNA inserted into the polylinker site. These colonies typically result from the digested, linearized plasmid religating to itself. However, white colonies lack a functional beta-galactosidase enzyme, indicating the insertion of foreign DNA within the polylinker site of the plasmid vector, thus disrupting the lacZ gene. Thus, white colonies resulting from this blue-white screening contain plasmids with an insert and can be further screened to characterize the foreign DNA. To be sure the correct DNA was incorporated into the plasmid, the DNA insert can then be sequenced.

Molecular Cloning Using Conjugation or Transduction

The bacterial process of conjugation (see How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity) can also be manipulated for molecular cloning. F plasmids, or fertility plasmids, are transferred between bacterial cells through the process of conjugation. Recombinant DNA can be transferred by conjugation when bacterial cells containing a recombinant F plasmid are mixed with compatible bacterial cells lacking the plasmid. F plasmids encode a surface structure called an F pilus that facilitates contact between a cell containing an F plasmid and one without an F plasmid. On contact, a cytoplasmic bridge forms between the two cells and the F-plasmid-containing cell replicates its plasmid, transferring a copy of the recombinant F plasmid to the recipient cell. Once it has received the recombinant F plasmid, the recipient cell can produce its own F pilus and facilitate transfer of the recombinant F plasmid to an additional cell. The use of conjugation to transfer recombinant F plasmids to recipient cells is another effective way to introduce recombinant DNA molecules into host cells.

Alternatively, bacteriophages can be used to introduce recombinant DNA into host bacterial cells through a manipulation of the transduction process (see How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity). In the laboratory, DNA fragments of interest can be engineered into phagemids, which are plasmids that have phage sequences that allow them to be packaged into bacteriophages. Bacterial cells can then be infected with these bacteriophages so that the recombinant phagemids can be introduced into the bacterial cells. Depending on the type of phage, the recombinant DNA may be integrated into the host bacterial genome (lysogeny), or it may exist as a plasmid in the host’s cytoplasm.

Figure 12.5 The steps involved in molecular cloning using bacterial transformation are outlined in this graphic flowchart.

Electroporation

Compared to bacterial cells, eukaryotic cells tend to be less amenable as hosts for recombinant DNA molecules. Because eukaryotes are typically neither competent to take up foreign DNA nor able to maintain plasmids, transfection of eukaryotic hosts is far more challenging and requires more intrusive techniques for success. One method used for transfecting cells in cell culture is called electroporation. A brief electric pulse induces the formation of transient pores in the phospholipid bilayers of cells through which the gene can be introduced. At the same time, the electric pulse generates a short-lived positive charge on one side of the cell’s interior and a negative charge on the opposite side; the charge difference draws negatively charged DNA molecules into the cell (Figure 12.9).

Figure 12.9 Electroporation is one laboratory technique used to introduce DNA into eukaryotic cells.

Microinjection

An alternative method of transfection is called microinjection. Because eukaryotic cells are typically larger than those of prokaryotes, DNA fragments can sometimes be directly injected into the cytoplasm using a glass micropipette, as shown in Figure 12.10.

Figure 12.10 Microinjection is another technique for introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells. A microinjection needle containing recombinant DNA is able to penetrate both the cell membrane and nuclear envelope.

Gene Guns

Transfecting plant cells can be even more difficult than animal cells because of their thick cell walls. One approach involves treating plant cells with enzymes to remove their cell walls, producing protoplasts. Then, a gene gun is used to shoot gold or tungsten particles coated with recombinant DNA molecules into the plant protoplasts at high speeds. Recipient protoplast cells can then recover and be used to generate new transgenic plants (Figure 12.11).

Figure 12.11 Heavy-metal particles coated with recombinant DNA are shot into plant protoplasts using a gene gun. The resulting transformed cells are allowed to recover and can be used to generate recombinant plants. (a) A schematic of a gene gun. (b) A photograph of a gene gun. (credit a, b: modification of work by JA O'Brien, SC Lummis)

Shuttle Vectors

Another method of transfecting plants involves shuttle vectors, plasmids that can move between bacterial and eukaryotic cells. The tumor-inducing (T_i) plasmids originating from the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens are commonly used as shuttle vectors for incorporating genes into plants (Figure 12.12). In nature, the T_i plasmids of A. tumefaciens cause plants to develop tumors when they are transferred from bacterial cells to plant cells. Researchers have been able to manipulate these naturally occurring plasmids to remove their tumor-causing genes and insert desirable DNA fragments. The resulting recombinant T_i plasmids can be transferred into the plant genome through the natural transfer of T_i plasmids from the bacterium to the plant host. Once inside the plant host cell, the gene of interest recombines into the plant cell’s genome.

Figure 12.12 The T_i plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a useful shuttle vector for the uptake of genes of interest into plant cells. The gene of interest is cloned into the T_i plasmid, which is then introduced into plant cells. The gene of interest then recombines into the plant cell’s genome, allowing for the production of transgenic plants.

Viral Vectors

Viral vectors can also be used to transfect eukaryotic cells. In fact, this method is often used in gene therapy (see Gene Therapy) to introduce healthy genes into human patients suffering from diseases that result from genetic mutations. Viral genes can be deleted and replaced with the gene to be delivered to the patient;³ the virus then infects the host cell and delivers the foreign DNA into the genome of the targeted cell. Adenoviruses are often used for this purpose because they can be grown to high titer and can infect both nondividing and dividing host cells. However, use of viral vectors for gene therapy can pose some risks for patients, as discussed in Gene Therapy.