Diana Riser; Rose Spielman; David Biek

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify milestones in movement and activity during early childhood
Distinguish between gross and fine motor skills
Explain the connection between movement and healthy overall development
Identify variables that may affect development of motor behavior in early childhood

Every place is Soo Min’s potential playground. She uses sofas and pillows to build caves, imagines being a wild bear, and launches toys into space. She is drawn to movement, spending her days running, jumping, climbing, clapping, twisting, and spinning. She plays with balls and has spontaneous dance parties. And it’s not a coincidence that many of her favorite preschool songs celebrate and encourage movement, including “The Wheels on the Bus,” “The Itsy-Bitsy Spider,” and “The Hokey Pokey,” to name a few.

In this section, you’ll learn about norms for motor development as well as individual differences in movement during early childhood. Psychologists study this period by dividing motor activity into large and small body movements—gross and fine motor skills. As you learned in 5.1 Physical Health and Growth in Early Childhood, environmental experiences and brain growth are complementary influences. Activities that initiate myelin formation, and myelin formation itself, are reciprocal developments that both improve motor skills. Depending on whether there is freedom or restriction, experiences in movement can have a significant impact on a child's physical development (Özal et al., 2020).

Gross and Fine Motor Skills and Developmental Milestones

As children develop during early childhood, they become more proficient at running, catching and throwing a ball, using crayons, and manipulating devices like phones or computers with their hands and fingers. These activities are important milestones in motor (movement) development. Achieving physical milestones also means the brain is developing as predicted. When milestones are significantly delayed, it indicates a potential problem in development, and appropriate interventions can be designed to address it.

During this period, children transition from somewhat lumbering, awkward behaviors to more adult-like motor movement. Through early childhood they will meet common motor skill milestones that gradually improve their physical abilities, including their hand-eye coordination, reaction time, and overall strength (Table 5.1).

Typical Age of Appearance in Years	Common Gross Motor Milestones	Common Fine Motor Milestones
2–3	Climbs Ascends stairs (unaided) with alternating feet Dresses self (without manipulating buttons or zippers) Pours liquids into containers	Uses utensils like forks or chopsticks Drinks from cup without spilling Uses door lever Performs simple tasks on a tablet or keyboard
3–4	Runs Jumps with two feet together Pedals a tricycle Descends stairs (aided) with alternating feet Throws and catches a ball Uses toilet independently	Turns one page at a time in a book Buttons and unbuttons clothing Strings beads Stacks six or more blocks to build a tower Cuts and pastes Draws a circle by copying Constructs simple puzzles Uses a mouse and keyboard
4–5	Stands on one foot Catches a bounced ball most of the time Walks across a balance beam Hops on one foot	Uses a TV remote Uses scissors Draws a person with two to four body parts Writes letters and draws shapes Ties shoes
5–6	Skips Does a somersault Swings under own power Jumps rope	Draws a person with at least six body parts Writes name and numbers accurately Draws basic shapes Connects buttons, zippers, snaps Uses school supplies appropriately

Table 5.1 Common Motor Skill Milestones in Early Childhood

By the time children arrive at middle childhood, they will have developed the general capabilities to perform movements like those of adults—though with far less skill and strength (Figure 5.10). However, due to their relatively immature cognitive abilities and still-developing brains, children don’t yet fully grasp certain aspects of motion, such as the trajectory of a rolling ball in a game of soccer or kickball. For these reasons, younger children are usually offered accommodations when engaging in physical activities. For instance, their slower reaction time and lack of skill necessitates the use of equipment like training wheels on a bicycle or a batting tee in T-ball.

Image a: an adult and two children ride bikes in the woods. Image b: adult helps child hit a ball off a tee with a bat.

Figure 5.10 By the end of the early childhood period, children can perform most of the same physical tasks as adults, such as (a) riding a bike or (b) hitting a baseball, though with less skill. (credit a: modification of work “PO Family Bike Ride” by Virginia State Parks/Flickr, CC BY 2.0; credit b: modification of work “T Ball” by Jim Pennucci/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

As you learned in 3.2 Motor Development in Infants and Toddlers, large body movements of the head, torso, arms, and legs are gross motor skills. We use gross motor skills in everyday activities like getting out of bed, stepping into clothes, and participating in nearly all athletic activities. In contrast, fine motor skills enable more precise movements of the hands and fingers. Among those who are sighted, fine motor skills often coordinate with vision. We use fine motor skills when clipping nails, holding a pencil to draw, using a video game controller, and holding an eating utensil. Similar to general physical growth, motor behavior changes depending on experience. For instance, having opportunities to play with blocks or participate in recreational sports provide advantages in particular kinds of movements.

Sometimes children struggle to perform typical movements, a condition called dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder (O’Dea et al., 2021). This neurodevelopmental condition often emerges in early childhood and impairs a child's ability to plan and execute coordinated movements like tying shoelaces, buttoning clothes, or holding a pencil properly. Children with the disorder may also have difficulty with gross motor skills, such as riding a bike or dribbling a ball. Early intervention can help improve motor skills and boost a child's self-esteem and future development (Eggleston et al., 2020; Zwicker & Lee, 2021).

The Importance of Physicality and Movement

It’s well-established that early physical activity has a positive impact on later health outcomes (Pate et al., 2019; Roychowdhury, 2020; Wyszyńska et al., 2020), including weight and cardiovascular fitness. It is also linked to lower risks of chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and certain cancers. Moreover, children who engage in physical activity during early childhood have higher bone density, which may help prevent osteoporosis in later life (Pate et al., 2019).

Like their older counterparts, active children also have stronger cognitive development, including improved attention, self-regulation, and academic performance (Mualem et al., 2018; Wood et al., 2020). Substantial evidence shows that throughout the lifespan, regular physical activity leads to better overall cognitive development (Erickson et al., 2019). Even a single 30-minute session has been shown to be beneficial in improving motor activity and memory for preschool children (McDonnell et al., 2013). One recent study suggested that these improvements are traceable to the cellular level in the brain, finding sustained brain excitability after one 30-minute aerobic activity (Kuo et al., 2023). Physical activity also has positive influences on later mental health, with reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress reported in physically active children, including those with ADHD (Christiansen et al., 2019; Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019).

The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020–2023 closed schools and community centers in many countries, depriving children of the benefits of physical activity due organized sports and recreation being restricted or unavailable. These limitations mirrored the challenges individuals already faced in low-income communities, where areas may be unsafe for families to walk or bicycle, and where access to amenities like affordable sports facilities and open spaces are typically scarce, perpetuating health and other inequalities. The pandemic underscored the significance of providing equal opportunities for children of all ages, genders, incomes, ethnicities, and physical abilities to engage in physical activity regularly (Do et al., 2022; Richard et al., 2023).

Movement Guidelines

According to the WHO, three- and four-year-old children should spend a minimum of three hours per day engaged in a variety of physical activities, including at least sixty minutes of moderate intensity to promote overall healthy development (WHO, 2022). Moderately intense activities include walking a dog, dancing, and riding a tricycle. In addition, the WHO recommends that children not be restrained in a stroller for more than an hour at a time or sit for extended periods (Figure 5.11).

Image of children and adults playing in a park.

Figure 5.11 Open spaces should be made safe and available so that all children can be active. (credit: modification of work “DSC04043” by Seattle Parks and Recreation/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

Children who are five and six years old are typically in school. The WHO recommends that they participate in a minimum of sixty minutes of moderate-to-vigorous activity per day. This can include normal school recess activities like climbing and playing games with balls. At least three times per week, children this age should engage in more vigorous aerobic activity, like games of tag, soccer, or basketball. High-intensity physical activities are especially important for building bone strength and muscle development (Gunter et al., 2012; Specker et al., 2015).

All young children should also have limits on screentime and sedentary behavior. However, modeling good habits can be difficult for parents and caregivers, and limiting sedentary behavior can be particularly challenging in some daycare settings and low-income communities, where space to play may be less accessible.

Individual Differences in Motor Behavior

Children with physical disabilities need physical activity as much as their peers. However, unequal facilities, such as playgrounds lacking specialized equipment, can pose structural barriers for these children. In addition, some sex differences are present in motor development.

Children with Physical Disabilities

Public policy decisions typically give less consideration to preschool children with physical disabilities (Heath & Levine, 2022). Their caregivers must therefore become expert coaches and activists, adding to family stress (Delvert et al., 2022). Barriers can include facilities that are inaccessible to wheelchairs, climbing bars that are too high to reach, and a lack of adapted equipment. Attitudinal barriers such as negative stereotypes and misconceptions about children’s capabilities are additional challenges, but it is essential to promote physical activity nevertheless (Figure 5.12). Children with different abilities or disabilities gain the same benefits from physical activity as other children, including improved cardiovascular health, strength, balance, coordination, and mood (Lasma & Rachman, 2019; Xu et al., 2020).

Photo of child in a wheelchair, wearing a helmet and sunglasses, tossing a frisbee.

Figure 5.12 Being active benefits children with disabilities in the same way as it does other children, including improvements in cardiovascular health, strength, balance, coordination, and mood. (credit: modification of work “230708_ NVWG_Portland_1286” by U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs/Flickr, Public Domain)

Physical activity also improves social skills, self-esteem, and mental health for children with disabilities, often leading to higher educational achievement (Alhumaid & Said, 2023; Bloemen et al., 2015). Expanding teacher training to include appropriate special education activities is a good start. Simply increasing knowledge about various disabilities allows schools to promote equity, inclusivity, and diversity. Just as we acknowledge that some children can more easily sit for long periods, we need to recognize that some children need additional time for activity.

Sex Differences in Motor Behavior

Evidence suggests that physical differences exist between males and females even at early ages, due to physiological and maturational differences (Kokštejn et al., 2017; Pellegrini & Smith, 1998). Studies show that females’ fine motor skills and manual dexterity are better than males’, beginning at about two years of age. These advantages gradually diminish through the early childhood years until they disappear (Navarro-Patón et al., 2021). In contrast, boys tend to outperform girls in specific gross motor skills (like catching a ball) that require speed or object manipulation. On average, boys jump higher and run faster than girls beginning in early childhood, likely because of differences in muscle strength.

However, girls show better balancing skills on average, such as when walking on a beam, balancing on one foot, and playing hopscotch. Therefore, some research argues that when all large motor activities are considered, overall differences disappear (Kokštejn et al, 2017). However, it is not known how much time boys and girls spent on balancing activities before they were measured in these studies (Navarro-Patón et al., 2021; Peyre et al., 2019). Furthermore, differences that do exist appear to ebb and flow throughout the preschool period depending on exact age and sex. Because preschool children are so young, just a few months can have a large impact when measuring one group against another.

Biological evidence points to small differences between male and female infant brains that may influence motor behavior. For example, males have higher motor and physical activity levels than females (Eaton & Yu, 1989; Oller et al., 2020; Pellegrini & Smith, 1998; Raza et al., 2019, Worobey, 2014). These findings might explain differences in motor behavior. However, studies also show that male infants are conditioned to be more physically active than female infants. On average, adults treat girls more delicately and use softer language beginning right after birth and continuing throughout infancy (Beal, 1994; Johnson et al., 2014). Parents are more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play with boys, in contrast to quiet play activities such as reading and cuddling when engaging with girls (Storli, 2021). This behavior suggests boys are given more opportunity to develop motor skills. Therefore, differences between boys and girls may be due to learning and reinforcement. That is, perhaps boys are given more opportunities to practice motor skills, providing a foundation for added strength.

Finally, recall the distinction between within-group and between-group differences. Discovering the reasons behind small differences in motor abilities provides insight for developmental scientists. For example, it helps us to understand the full range of development and to design interventions when problems arise. Regardless of individual or group differences, all children should be offered equal opportunities and encouragement.

Life Hacks

Keeping Children Active

We know that during early childhood, parents and caregivers should encourage activities and play that emphasize motor skills and combat sedentary behavior and habits. After all, the brain literally grows when children engage in new opportunities. But if you’re wondering when you’ll find time in your day to play catch with your kids, consider that while children need to move, not all motor behaviors are related to athletic activities.

In fact, you can turn everyday “adult” tasks like shopping and cooking into engaging activities that encourage movement and promote skill-building and foster independence. Children enjoy placing produce in a bag, lifting sacks of flour, and loading and unloading items from a shopping cart. They also develop fine motor skills when they pour water, measure ingredients, and use utensils of all kinds. Including young children in these activities does take planning and patience. It’s tempting to run to the grocery store while another adult minds the child, or to rush through meal preparation while the child is occupied with electronic devices. However, try including children in these tasks as much as possible. With time and practice, they will become increasingly proficient, improving their motor skills, building a habit of keeping active, learning responsibility, and perhaps eventually even saving you time. And one day, they may even cook dinner for the family.

References

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5.2 Motor Development and Physical Skills in Early Childhood