Skip to ContentGo to accessibility pageKeyboard shortcuts menu
OpenStax Logo

Agronin, M. E. (2014). From Cicero to Cohen: Developmental theories of aging, from antiquity to the present. The Gerontologist, 54(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnt032

Alexander, L. (2024). Sleep deprivation: Definition, side effects, and treatment. National Council on Aging. https://www.ncoa.org/adviser/sleep/sleep-deprivation/

American Cancer Society. (n.d.). Cancer screening recommendations. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/screening/get-screened.html

American Psychiatric Association. (2023). What are anxiety disorders? https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/anxiety-disorders/what-are-anxiety-disorders

American Psychological Society. (n.d.-a). Anxiety. https://www.apa.org/topics/anxiety

American Psychological Society. (n.d.-b). Depression. https://www.apa.org/topics/depression

Bartel, M. (2023). Effects of aging on the digestive system. Merck Manual Consumer Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/digestive-disorders/biology-of-the-digestive-system/effects-of-aging-on-the-digestive-system

Bauger, L., & Bongaardt, R. (2018). Structural developmental psychology and health promotion in the third age. Health Promotion International, 33(4), 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daw104

Brown, L., Hunter, M. S., Chen, R., Crandall, C. J., Gordon, J. L., Mishra, G. D., Rother, V., Joffe, H., & Hickey, M. (2021). Promoting good mental health over the menopause transition. The Lancet, 403(10430), 969–983. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)02801-5

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Osteoporosis. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/osteoporosis.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). What noises cause hearing loss? https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hearing_loss/what_noises_cause_hearing_loss.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022a). Adult obesity facts. www.cdc.gov/obesity/php/data-research/adult-obesity-facts.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022b). Causes of obesity. https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/php/about/risk-factors.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022c). Mental health conditions: Depression and anxiety. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/depression-anxiety.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023a). Depression. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/depression.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023b). Drug overdose. https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/deaths/other-drugs.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023c). Injury prevention and control. https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/animated-leading-causes.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023d). Opioids: Understanding the epidemic. https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023e). Suicide prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/suicide/suicide-data-statistics.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024a). Data on excessive drinking. https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/data-stats.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024b). High cholesterol facts. https://www.cdc.gov/cholesterol/data-research/facts-stats/index.html

CK-12. (2015) Early and middle adulthood. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/user:coachtgj/cbook/episd-sociology/section/7.1/primary/lesson/early-and-middle-adulthood/

Committee on Improving the Health, Safety, and Well-Being of Young Adults; Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Institute of Medicine; National Research Council; Bonnie, R. J., Stroud, C., Breiner, H. (Eds.). Investing in the health and well-being of young adults. National Academies Press (US); 2015 Jan 27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK284791/

Craik, F. I., & Bialystok, E. (2006). Cognition through the lifespan: Mechanisms of change. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 131–138.

Elgaddal, N., Kramarow, E., & Reuben, C. (2022). Physical activity among adults aged 18 and over: United States, 2020 (NCHS Data Brief No. 443). National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db443.htm

Eriksen, K. (2006). The constructive developmental theory of Robert Kegan. The Family Journal, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480706287799

Esser, M. B., Leung, G., Sherk, A., Bohm, M. K., Liu, Y., Lu, H., & Naimi, T. S. (2022). Estimated deaths attributable to excessive alcohol use among US adults aged 20 to 64 years, 2015 to 2019. JAMA Network Open, 5(11), e2239485. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.39485

Fatima, R., & Aziz, M. (2023). Achlorhydria. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507793/

Ferraro, K. F. (2014). The time of our lives: Recognizing the contributions of Mannheim, Neugarten, and Riley to the study of aging. The Gerontologist, 54(1), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnt048

Gautam, M., Tripathi, A., Deshmukh, D., & Gaur, M. (2020). Cognitive behavioral therapy for depression. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 62(Suppl. 2), S223. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_772_19

Girgis, F., Lee, D. J., Goodarzi, A., & Ditterich, J. (2018). Toward a neuroscience of adult cognitive developmental theory. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00004

Harvard University. (n.d.). The science of adult capabilities. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/deep-dives/adult-capabilities/

Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 22, 193–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60041-9

Haynes, T. (2018). Dopamine, smartphones & you: A battle for your time. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/dopamine-smartphones-battle-time/

Hochberg, Z. E., & Konner, M. (2020). Emerging adulthood, a pre-adult life-history stage. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10, 918. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00918

Infurna, F. J., Gerstorf, D., & Lachman, M. E. (2020). Midlife in the 2020s: Opportunities and challenges. The American Psychologist, 75(4), 470. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000591

Jahnen, M., Dichtl, L., Stirenberg, N., Dinkel, A., Schiele, S., Schulwitz, H., Gschwend, J. E., & Herkommer, K. (2021). Selbstuntersuchung von Hoden und Brust – eine retrospektive Kohortenstudie an Medizinstudierenden [Testicular and breast self-examination—A retrospective cohort study of medical students]. Der Urologe Ausg A, 60(7), 901–909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00120-021-01479-8

Jessup University. (n.d.). Why do adults adhere to a social clock. https://jessup.edu/blog/cultural-impact/why-do-adults-adhere-to-a-social-clock/

Jimenez, M. P., DeVille, N. V., Elliott, E. G., Schiff, J. E., Wilt, G. E., Hart, J. E., & James, P. (2021). Associations between nature exposure and health: A review of the evidence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094790

Koh, B., Hao Tan, D. J., Ng, C. H., Fu, C. E., Lim, W. H., Zeng, R. W., Yong, J. N., Koh, J. H., Syn, N., Meng, W., Wijarnpreecha, K., Liu, K., Chong, C. S., Muthiah, M., Luu, H. N., Vogel, A., Singh, S., Yeoh, K. G., Loomba, R., . . . Huang, D. Q. (2023). Patterns in cancer incidence among people younger than 50 years in the US, 2010 to 2019. JAMA Network Open, 6(8). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.28171

Lachman, M. E., Teshale, S., & Agrigoroaei, S. (2015). Midlife as a pivotal period in the life course: Balancing growth and decline at the crossroads of youth and old age. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 39(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414533223

Lawrence, E. M., Mollborn, S., & Hummer, R. A. (2017). Health lifestyles across the transition to adulthood: Implications for health. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 193, 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.09.041

Lee, S. (2015). Cultural factors associated with breast and cervical cancer screening in Korean American women in the U.S. Asian Nursing Research, 9(2), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2015.05.003

Lewin, L. O., McManamon, A., Stein, M. T. O., & Chen, D. T. (2019). Minding the form that transforms: Using Kegan’s model of adult development to understand personal and professional identity formation in medicine. Academic Medicine, 94(9), 1299–1304. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000002741

Luo, H., Wu, B., Kamer, A. R., Adhikari, S., Sloan, F., Plassman, B. L., Tan, C., Qi, X., & Schwartz, M. D. (2022). Oral health, diabetes, and inflammation: Effects of oral hygiene behaviour. International Dental Journal, 72(4), 484–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.identj.2021.10.001

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., & Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health. Developmental Psychology, 52(3), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039875

Martin, K., & Barbieri, R. (2023, March 24). Treatment of menopausal symptoms with hormone therapy. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-of-menopausal-symptoms-with-hormone-therapy

Mayo Clinic. (2018). Anxiety disorders. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/syc-20350961

Mayo Clinic. (2021). Metabolic syndrome. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/metabolic-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20351916

Mayo Clinic. (2021). Presbyopia. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/presbyopia/symptoms-causes/syc-20363328

Mayo Clinic. (2022). Are video games, screens another addiction? https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/are-video-games-and-screens-another-addiction

Mayo Clinic. (2023). Aging: What to expect. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/healthy-aging/in-depth/aging/art-20046070

Mayo Clinic. (2023a). High cholesterol. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/symptoms-causes/syc-20350800

Mayo Clinic. (2023b). Prediabetes. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/prediabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20355278

Mayo Clinic. (2024). Mild cognitive impairment (MCI). https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mild-cognitive-impairment/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354583

MIT. (2022). Young adult development project: Brain changes. https://hr.mit.edu/static/worklife/youngadult/brain.html

Nakshine, V. S., Thute, P., Khatib, M. N., & Sarkar, B. (2022). Increased screen time as a cause of declining physical, psychological health, and sleep patterns: A literary review. Cureus, 14(10), e30051. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.30051

National Cancer Institute. (2021). Age and cancer risk. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/age

National Cancer Institute. (2023). Diet. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2022). What are sleep deprivation and deficiency? https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/sleep-deprivation

National Institute of Mental Health. (2021). Eating disorders: About more than food. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders

National Institute of Mental Health. (2023). Suicide. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/suicide

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020). Misuse of prescription drugs research project. https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/misuse-prescription-drugs/overview

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2022). Kratom. https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/kratom#affect-body

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2024). Drug overdose death rates. https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/trends-statistics/overdose-death-rates

National Institutes of Health. (2022, October 24). Video gaming may be associated with better cognitive performance in children [News release]. https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/video-gaming-may-be-associated-better-cognitive-performance-children

Neugarten, B. L. (1968). The awareness of middle aging. In B. L. Neugarten (Ed.), Middle age and aging (pp. 93-98). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

NIDDK. (2023). Health risks of overweight and obesity. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/adult-overweight-obesity/health-risks

NIDDK. (2024). Diabetes statistics. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-statistics/diabetes-statistics

Nolan, R., & Nidhin, K. (2003, October 8–11). Vaillant’s contribution to research and theory of adult development [Conference presentation]. 2003 Midwest Research to Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States. https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/8d0b945e-e14c-4df9-ae71-21ec5197d9e7/content

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.) Workplace violence. https://www.osha.gov/workplace-violence

Olvera-Rosales, B., Cruz-Guerrero, E., Ramírez-Moreno, E., Quintero-Lira, A., Contreras-López, E., Jaimez-Ordaz, J., Castañeda-Ovando, A., Añorve-Morga, J., Calderón-Ramos, G., Arias-Rico, J., & González-Olivares, G. (2021). Impact of the gut microbiota balance on the health–disease relationship: The importance of consuming probiotics and prebiotics. Foods, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061261

Perera, A. (2024). Fluid intelligence vs. crystallized intelligence. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/fluid-crystallized-intelligence.html

Pruyn, P. (2010). An overview of constructive developmental theory (CDT). Medium. https://peterpruyn.medium.com/an-overview-of-constructive-developmental-theory-cdt-667f3e015cc1

Ruder, D. B. (2019). Screen time and the brain. Harvard Medical School. https://hms.harvard.edu/news/screen-time-brain

Salthouse, T. A. (2004). What and when of cognitive aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 140-144.

Schiller, J., & Norris, T. (2022). Early release of selected estimates based on data from the 2022 National Health Interview Survey. National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/earlyrelease202304.pdf

Sherman, L. (2024, March 11). Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) facts. National Council on Aging. https://www.ncoa.org/adviser/hearing-aids/presbycusis-age-related-hearing-loss

Statista. (2022). Resident population of the United States by sex and age as of July 2022. https://www.statista.com/statistics/241488/population-of-the-us-by-sex-and-age/

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2023, November 13). HHS, SAMHSA release 2022 National Survey on Drug Use and Health Data [Press release]. https://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/20231113/hhs-samhsa-release-2022-nsduh-data

UCLA Health. (n.d.). Preventive health screenings, by age. https://www.uclahealth.org/sites/default/files/documents/NewPatientGuide-PrevHealth_FINAL_091721.pdf

Vohn, D., Horowitz, J., Minkin, R., Fry, R., & Hurst, K. (2022, March 24). The demographics of multigenerational households. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2022/03/24/the-demographics-of-multigenerational-households/

Washington, C., Gryn, T., Anderson, L., & Kreider, R. (2023, June 13). Several generations under one roof. United States Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2023/06/several-generations-under-one-roof.html

Weir, K. (2020, April1). Nurtured by nature. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2020/04/nurtured-nature

Wood, D., Crapnell, T., Lau, L., Bennett, A., Lotstein, D., Ferris, M., & Kuo, A. (2018). Emerging adulthood as a critical stage in the life course. In: N. Halfon, C. B. Forrest, R. M. Lerner, & E. M. Faustman (Eds.), Handbook of life course health development [Internet]. Springer. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK543712/ doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-47143-3_7

World Health Organization. (2022). Physical activity. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity

World Health Organization. (2024). Malnutrition. https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/malnutrition

Zhao, J., Xu, L., Sun, J., Song, M., Wang, L., Yuan, S., Zhu, Y., Wan, Z., Larsson, S., Tsilidis, K., Dunlop, M., Campbell, H., Rudan, I., Song, P., Theodoratou, E., Ding, K., & Li, X. (2023). Global trends in incidence, death, burden and risk factors of early-onset cancer from 1990 to 2019. BMJ Oncology, 2, e000049. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjonc-2023-000049

Zheng, Y., Manson, J. E., Yuan, C., Liang, M. H., Grodstein, F., Stampfer, M. J., Willett, W. C., & Hu, F. B. (2017). Associations of weight gain from early to middle adulthood with major health outcomes later in life. JAMA, 318(3), 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.7092

Zhong, S., Yu, R., & Fazel, S. (2020). Drug use disorders and violence: Associations with individual drug categories. Epidemiologic Reviews, 42(1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxaa006

Citation/Attribution

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Attribution information
  • If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a print format, then you must include on every physical page the following attribution:
    Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/fundamentals-nursing/pages/1-introduction
  • If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a digital format, then you must include on every digital page view the following attribution:
    Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/fundamentals-nursing/pages/1-introduction
Citation information

© Aug 20, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.