32.1 Foundations of Self-Concept

Global Self

The concept that we are all part of a collective being is called global self, like a global family where our actions have far-reaching impacts. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of people and cultures around the world. Various types of global self are highlighted, including cultural global self, shaped by exposure to diverse cultures; environmental global self, emphasizing responsible interaction with the planet; social global self, focusing on global friendships and community impact; digital global self, reflecting our online presence and connections; and economic global self, recognizing the influence of our purchasing choices on the world economy. These types encourage a holistic understanding of our role in a global context, extending beyond geographical and cultural boundaries.

Ideal Self

The concept of the self encompasses different aspects, including the actual self, ideal self, and ought self. The actual self, or real self, represents the attributes believed to be possessed by an individual, as perceived by oneself or others (Figure 32.4). On the other hand, the ideal self consists of attributes one or others aspire for the individual to possess, while the ought self refers to the internalized expectations and standards that individuals believe they should or must adhere to in order to meet external demands, social norms, or moral obligations.

These different facets of the self can lead to internal conflicts, manifesting as disparities between the actual self and the ideal or ought self. Such discrepancies can serve as motivational factors, prompting individuals to undertake actions for self-improvement. For example, imagine a registered nurse who sees themself as compassionate and dedicated to patient care (actual self). However, their ideal self-image includes becoming a nurse practitioner specializing in oncology. Meanwhile, their ought self involves meeting the expectations of their healthcare team and adhering to clinical protocols and patient safety standards. The gap between their current role as a nurse and their ideal self as a nurse practitioner may motivate them to pursue further education, seek certification, and gain clinical experience in oncology. Simultaneously, balancing their ought self with patient care demands and clinical responsibilities requires them to integrate compassionate care with procedural adherence and team collaboration.

Figure 32.4 When our real self and ideal self overlap, harmony occurs. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

Moreover, conflicts between the ideal and ought selves can induce heightened stress, particularly when individuals, such as professional women with both career aspirations and maternal duties, perceive a misalignment between their ideal vision and perceived obligations. The resulting actual self may fall short of meeting expectations in either realm. These disparities extend beyond cognitive unease, influencing emotional, behavioral, and communicative responses. When assessing the actual self in comparison to ideal self and external expectations, distinct patterns of emotional and behavioral consequences emerge. Mismatch with personal ideals may evoke feelings of disappointment and frustration, as exemplified by the financial discipline scenario. Similarly, discrepancies with others’ ideals can elicit emotions such as shame and embarrassment, as experienced when academic performance falls short of expectations. Conflicts with perceived duties or obligations may lead to agitation and fear of potential repercussions, exemplified by the dilemma of following familial expectations versus personal aspirations. Last, incongruence with one’s own sense of duties may evoke feelings of guilt and inadequacy. For example, in nursing, when a nurse’s actual self, ideal self (aiming for specialized expertise in critical care), and ought self (fulfilling hospital protocols and team expectations) are not aligned, it can evoke feelings of guilt and inadequacy. The nurse may feel guilty when unable to dedicate enough time to specialized patient care during demanding shifts, leading to a sense of inadequacy in meeting both patient needs and professional standards. This overview outlines the four potential discrepancies between selves and the associated emotional outcomes, emphasizing the intricate interplay between internal and external expectations on individuals’ well-being and self-perception.

False Self

Donald Winnicott, a pediatrician and psychoanalyst, stressed how important it is to keep our mental energy strong when there is constant pressure to fit in. His focus was on the individual’s ability to be “alive” and spontaneous, and how these qualities can be lost when we start to take on what society expects from us (Ehrlich, 2021). This pressure ultimately causes issues of frustration, anger, and sadness. Winnicott believed that the false self, pretending to be someone we are not, begins in infancy due to unmet maternal needs.

The pervasive impact of shame, marked by a sense of inherent inadequacy and unworthiness, often compels individuals to construct a false self in the pursuit of acceptance. The fear of rejection and humiliation drives an individual to garner approval, perpetuating anxiety and a diversion of embracing one’s genuine, authentic self. In a quest for safety, individuals alter their identities and expend a considerable amount of energy to meet perceived expectations for love and acceptance. This self-imposed pressure to conform leads many to showcase attributes such as intelligence and skill, beauty, or accomplishments, at the cost of authenticity. Shame and authenticity share an intertwined relationship, influencing self-perception and external presentation. When rooted in the belief of personal flaws, shame disconnects individuals from innate, spontaneous joy, inhibiting the development of self-worth. Recognizing the presence of shame enables individuals to break free from destructive influence, empowering the true self despite external judgments. The journey toward authenticity is viewed as an ongoing process of mindful self-awareness, disentangled from the corrosive influences of shame and inner criticism, allowing individuals to navigate complexities, acknowledge existence without being defined by it, and ultimately spread their wings to savor the richness of life (Amodeo, 2020).

Significance

When people assess themselves, they tend to think of their ideal selves—an almost perfect version of who they want to be. This idealized view can lead to biased evaluations. Even if individuals cannot always act like their ideal selves, they often rate themselves more positively during self-evaluation. It is common for people to think less critically of themselves than they do of others. Understanding that these evaluations can be biased helps individuals form a more balanced self-concept. People may overestimate their abilities, and when they face failure, they tend to attribute the reasons to external factors rather than themselves (Song, 2021).

Recognizing that individuals might sometimes misjudge their capabilities allows them to develop a clearer self-concept. Social comparison, where people constantly compare themselves to others, can lead to assimilation in self-evaluations, making an individual’s assessment more like their peers. Providing people with a realistic view of their capabilities helps them gain a better understanding of what they can do and reduces assimilation to some extent.

Competence

The degree of effectiveness and proficiency individuals perceive in themselves is called competence. It involves not only objective assessments of performance but also subjective evaluations relative to personal standards and aspirations. Individuals gauge their competence in academic, professional, social, and personal spheres, reflecting on their achievements, strengths, and areas for improvement. Positive self-perceptions of competence foster confidence, motivation, and a sense of efficacy, empowering individuals to pursue their goals and navigate life’s challenges with resilience. Conversely, perceived deficits in competence may lead to feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and impostor syndrome (a psychological pattern in which individuals doubt their skills, talents, or accomplishments and have a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a “fraud”), hindering personal growth and well-being.

Virtue

The moral dimension of self-evaluation, virtue, encompasses individuals’ reflections on their character, values, and ethical conduct. It involves assessing the alignment between one’s actions, intentions, and moral principles, as well as the perceived consistency with societal or cultural norms of virtuous behavior. Positive self-evaluations of virtue contribute to feelings of moral integrity, self-respect, and authenticity, fostering a sense of purpose and meaningful connection with others. Conversely, negative self-perceptions in this domain, such as feelings of guilt, shame, or moral conflict, may arise when individuals perceive a disconnect between their actions and their values, leading to inner turmoil and existential questioning.

Power

An individual’s perception of their ability to influence or control outcomes, resources, or other individuals within their social environment is called power. It encompasses both personal agency and social influence, spanning domains such as work, relationships, and community involvement. Positive self-evaluations of power cultivate feelings of autonomy, assertiveness, and efficacy, enabling individuals to assert their needs, pursue their goals, and advocate for change. However, perceived powerlessness or lack of control may engender feelings of frustration, helplessness, or vulnerability, undermining individuals’ sense of agency and impeding their ability to effect change in their lives and communities. Recognizing and leveraging personal sources of power can empower individuals to assert themselves confidently, navigate power dynamics effectively, and strive for greater equity and justice in society.

Self-Awareness (Infancy)

During infancy, the development of self-concept begins with the foundation of self-awareness. Infants gradually become aware of their own bodies and sensations, distinguishing themselves from their environment. This initial stage is marked by simple sensory experiences, such as recognizing their own movements, sounds, and bodily sensations. Infants may display rudimentary forms of self-recognition, such as looking at their own hands or exploring their reflections in a mirror. When babies encounter a mirror, their first instinct is to hit it, not realizing it is a reflection of themselves. This early stage signifies a lack of self-recognition, where babies do not yet comprehend that the image in the mirror is a reflection of themselves. However, newborns do have an innate ability to differentiate between their image and the background as well as between themselves and their surroundings, indicating an early sense of self as a distinct entity.

Around 2 months old, babies start manipulating the mirror image, or gaining awareness of how their bodies relate to the environment. This stage is critical as it marks the beginning of understanding their physical presence in the world. An example is being able to estimate the distance to an object and then reaching for it. Studies indicate that even though newborns can mimic facial expressions, it is around 2 months of age that they learn to manipulate their bodies in response to the environment (Krisch, 2023). As they enter into 3 and 4 months of age, they begin to demonstrate their ability to imitate an adult sticking out their tongue in a specific direction and reach for objects around them. These behaviors reflect a growing recognition of their own actions and their effects on the environment, reinforcing their developing self-concept.

Caregivers play a crucial role in nurturing self-awareness during infancy through responsive interactions and sensitive attunement to the infant’s cues and needs. By providing loving care and attention, caregivers help infants develop a sense of security and trust in their own bodies and surroundings, laying the groundwork for further exploration and self-discovery.

Self-Recognition (18 Months)

Just as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants do not have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, the baby will reach out to touch their image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months, a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is themself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children’s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old, they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24 to 36 months old, children can name and/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.

This newfound self-recognition reflects cognitive advances and an emerging sense of identity. Toddlers start to understand that they have personal attributes and characteristics that distinguish them from others. This awareness lays the groundwork for the development of self-esteem and self-concept, as children begin to form judgments about themselves based on their perceptions and experiences.

Caregivers and parents continue to play a crucial role during this stage by providing positive reinforcement and encouragement. They validate the child’s emerging sense of self by acknowledging and celebrating their achievements, preferences, and individuality. By offering praise, affection, and support, caregivers contribute to the development of a positive self-image and self-esteem in the child.

Additionally, social interactions with peers become increasingly important during this stage, as children start to compare themselves to others. Through play and exploration with peers, toddlers learn more about their own abilities, preferences, and social roles. These interactions provide valuable opportunities for self-discovery and understanding as children navigate social dynamics and learn to negotiate their place within their peer group.

Self-Definition (3 Years)

By the age of 3 years, children enter a stage of self-concept development known as self-definition, where they begin to form a more coherent and elaborate understanding of themselves. During this crucial period, children start to describe themselves in concrete terms, using characteristics such as age, gender, physical attributes, and preferences to define their identity.

Language skills play a significant role in this process, as children become increasingly adept at expressing their thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. They may use phrases like, “I am a big boy/girl,” “I like to play with dolls/cars,” or “I have brown hair and blue eyes” to describe themselves to others. These self-descriptions reflect their growing awareness of personal attributes and preferences, as well as their ability to distinguish themselves from others.

Caregivers and educators continue to play a vital role in supporting children’s self-definition during this stage. By providing opportunities for self-expression, validation, and positive reinforcement, adults help children develop a positive self-image and self-esteem. Encouraging children to talk about their interests, accomplishments, and feelings fosters a sense of autonomy and confidence in their identity.

Social interactions with peers also contribute to the development of self-definition. Through play, cooperation, and conflict resolution, children learn more about their own abilities, strengths, and limitations in relation to others. They begin to understand their social roles and develop a sense of belonging within their peer group, further shaping their self-concept.

At this stage, children’s self-definition is still largely concrete and based on observable characteristics. However, it lays the groundwork for more complex aspects of self-concept to emerge in later stages of development. As children continue to grow and mature, their self-definition will become more nuanced and multifaceted, incorporating factors such as personality traits, values, beliefs, and aspirations. Through ongoing exploration, reflection, and social interaction, children gradually construct a richer and more comprehensive understanding of themselves and their place in the world.

Self-Concept (6 to 7 Years)

Between the ages of 6 and 7 years, children undergo significant development in their self-concept, which encompasses their beliefs, perceptions, and evaluations of themselves. During this stage, children begin to internalize and integrate various aspects of their identity, including their abilities, personality traits, social roles, and relationships with others.

One key aspect of self-concept development during this stage is the emergence of social comparison and self-evaluation. Children become more aware of how they stack up against their peers in terms of academic performance, athletic abilities, social skills, and other domains. They may start to compare themselves to others and form judgments about their own competence and worth based on these comparisons. For example, 10-year-old Layla may say, “I’m kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa.”

At the same time, children’s self-concept becomes increasingly influenced by feedback from others, including parents, teachers, peers, and media. Positive reinforcement and encouragement from significant others can bolster children’s self-esteem and confidence, while criticism or negative feedback may lead to feelings of inadequacy or self-doubt.

Children also begin to develop a more differentiated and nuanced understanding of themselves, recognizing their strengths and weaknesses across different domains. They may identify specific interests, talents, and preferences that shape their sense of identity and self-worth. Additionally, children become more aware of societal norms and expectations, which can influence their beliefs about what it means to be “good,” “smart,” or “successful.”

During this stage, caregivers and educators play a crucial role in supporting children’s self-concept development. By providing opportunities for success, offering constructive feedback, and fostering a supportive and inclusive environment, adults can help children develop a positive and realistic sense of self. Encouraging children to explore their interests, set goals, and pursue their passions can also contribute to their self-confidence and self-esteem.