In this glossary, key symbols and notation are briefly defined.
Symbol | Definition |
---|---|
¯any symbol |
average (indicated by a bar over a symbol—e.g., ˉv is average velocity) |
°C |
Celsius degree |
°F |
Fahrenheit degree |
// |
parallel |
⊥ |
perpendicular |
∝ |
proportional to |
± |
plus or minus |
0 |
zero as a subscript denotes an initial value |
α |
alpha rays |
α |
angular acceleration |
α |
temperature coefficient(s) of resistivity |
β |
beta rays |
β |
sound level |
β |
volume coefficient of expansion |
β− |
electron emitted in nuclear beta decay |
β+ |
positron decay |
γ |
gamma rays |
γ |
surface tension |
γ=1/√1−v2/c2 |
a constant used in relativity |
Δ |
change in whatever quantity follows |
δ |
uncertainty in whatever quantity follows |
ΔE |
change in energy between the initial and final orbits of an electron in an atom |
ΔE |
uncertainty in energy |
Δm |
difference in mass between initial and final products |
ΔN |
number of decays that occur |
Δp |
change in momentum |
Δp |
uncertainty in momentum |
ΔPEg |
change in gravitational potential energy |
Δθ |
rotation angle |
Δs |
distance traveled along a circular path |
Δt |
uncertainty in time |
Δt0 |
proper time as measured by an observer at rest relative to the process |
ΔV |
potential difference |
Δx |
uncertainty in position |
ε0 |
permittivity of free space |
η |
viscosity |
θ |
angle between the force vector and the displacement vector |
θ |
angle between two lines |
θ |
contact angle |
θ |
direction of the resultant |
θb |
Brewster's angle |
θc |
critical angle |
κ |
dielectric constant |
λ |
decay constant of a nuclide |
λ |
wavelength |
λn |
wavelength in a medium |
μ0 |
permeability of free space |
μk |
coefficient of kinetic friction |
μs |
coefficient of static friction |
ve |
electron neutrino |
π+ |
positive pion |
π− |
negative pion |
π0 |
neutral pion |
ρ |
density |
ρc |
critical density, the density needed to just halt universal expansion |
ρfl |
fluid density |
ˉρobj |
average density of an object |
ρ/ρw |
specific gravity |
τ |
characteristic time constant for a resistance and inductance (RL) or resistance and capacitance (RC) circuit |
τ |
characteristic time for a resistor and capacitor (RC) circuit |
τ |
torque |
Υ |
upsilon meson |
Φ |
magnetic flux |
ϕ |
phase angle |
Ω |
ohm (unit) |
ω |
angular velocity |
A |
ampere (current unit) |
A |
area |
A |
cross-sectional area |
A |
total number of nucleons |
a |
acceleration |
aB |
Bohr radius |
ac |
centripetal acceleration |
at |
tangential acceleration |
AC |
alternating current |
AM |
amplitude modulation |
atm |
atmosphere |
B |
baryon number |
B |
blue quark color |
ˉB |
antiblue (yellow) antiquark color |
b |
quark flavor bottom or beauty |
B |
bulk modulus |
B |
magnetic field strength |
Bint |
electron’s intrinsic magnetic field |
Borb |
orbital magnetic field |
BE |
binding energy of a nucleus—it is the energy required to completely disassemble it into separate protons and neutrons |
BE/A |
binding energy per nucleon |
Bq |
becquerel—one decay per second |
C |
capacitance (amount of charge stored per volt) |
C |
coulomb (a fundamental SI unit of charge) |
Cp |
total capacitance in parallel |
Cs |
total capacitance in series |
CG |
center of gravity |
CM |
center of mass |
c |
quark flavor charm |
c |
specific heat |
c |
speed of light |
Cal |
kilocalorie |
cal |
calorie |
COPhp |
heat pump’s coefficient of performance |
COPref |
coefficient of performance for refrigerators and air conditioners |
cosθ |
cosine |
cotθ |
cotangent |
cscθ |
cosecant |
D |
diffusion constant |
d |
displacement |
d |
quark flavor down |
dB |
decibel |
di |
distance of an image from the center of a lens |
do |
distance of an object from the center of a lens |
DC |
direct current |
E |
electric field strength |
ε |
emf (voltage) or Hall electromotive force |
emf |
electromotive force |
E |
energy of a single photon |
E |
nuclear reaction energy |
E |
relativistic total energy |
E |
total energy |
E0 |
ground state energy for hydrogen |
E0 |
rest energy |
EC |
electron capture |
Ecap |
energy stored in a capacitor |
Eff |
efficiency—the useful work output divided by the energy input |
EffC |
Carnot efficiency |
Ein |
energy consumed (food digested in humans) |
Eind |
energy stored in an inductor |
Eout |
energy output |
e |
emissivity of an object |
e+ |
antielectron or positron |
eV |
electron volt |
F |
farad (unit of capacitance, a coulomb per volt) |
F |
focal point of a lens |
F |
force |
F |
magnitude of a force |
F |
restoring force |
FB |
buoyant force |
Fc |
centripetal force |
Fi |
force input |
Fnet |
net force |
Fo |
force output |
FM |
frequency modulation |
f |
focal length |
f |
frequency |
f0 |
resonant frequency of a resistance, inductance, and capacitance (RLC) series circuit |
f0 |
threshold frequency for a particular material (photoelectric effect) |
f1 |
fundamental |
f2 |
first overtone |
f3 |
second overtone |
fB |
beat frequency |
fk |
magnitude of kinetic friction |
fs |
magnitude of static friction |
G |
gravitational constant |
G |
green quark color |
ˉG |
antigreen (magenta) antiquark color |
g |
acceleration due to gravity |
g |
gluons (carrier particles for strong nuclear force) |
h |
change in vertical position |
h |
height above some reference point |
h |
maximum height of a projectile |
h |
Planck's constant |
hf |
photon energy |
hi |
height of the image |
ho |
height of the object |
I |
electric current |
I |
intensity |
I |
intensity of a transmitted wave |
I |
moment of inertia (also called rotational inertia) |
I0 |
intensity of a polarized wave before passing through a filter |
Iave |
average intensity for a continuous sinusoidal electromagnetic wave |
Irms |
average current |
J |
joule |
J/Ψ |
Joules/psi meson |
K |
kelvin |
k |
Boltzmann constant |
k |
force constant of a spring |
Kα |
x rays created when an electron falls into an n=1 shell vacancy from the n=3 shell |
Kβ |
x rays created when an electron falls into an n=2 shell vacancy from the n=3 shell |
kcal |
kilocalorie |
KE |
translational kinetic energy |
KE+PE |
mechanical energy |
KEe |
kinetic energy of an ejected electron |
KErel |
relativistic kinetic energy |
KErot |
rotational kinetic energy |
¯KE |
thermal energy |
kg |
kilogram (a fundamental SI unit of mass) |
L |
angular momentum |
L |
liter |
L |
magnitude of angular momentum |
L |
self-inductance |
ℓ |
angular momentum quantum number |
Lα |
x rays created when an electron falls into an n=2 shell |
Le |
electron total family number |
Lμ |
muon family total number |
Lτ |
tau family total number |
Lf |
heat of fusion |
LfandLv |
latent heat coefficients |
Lorb |
orbital angular momentum |
Ls |
heat of sublimation |
Lv |
heat of vaporization |
Lz |
z - component of the angular momentum |
M |
angular magnification |
M |
mutual inductance |
m |
indicates metastable state |
m |
magnification |
m |
mass |
m |
mass of an object as measured by a person at rest relative to the object |
m |
meter (a fundamental SI unit of length) |
m |
order of interference |
m |
overall magnification (product of the individual magnifications) |
m(AX) |
atomic mass of a nuclide |
MA |
mechanical advantage |
me |
magnification of the eyepiece |
me |
mass of the electron |
mℓ |
angular momentum projection quantum number |
mn |
mass of a neutron |
mo |
magnification of the objective lens |
mol |
mole |
mp |
mass of a proton |
ms |
spin projection quantum number |
N |
magnitude of the normal force |
N |
newton |
N |
normal force |
N |
number of neutrons |
n |
index of refraction |
n |
number of free charges per unit volume |
NA |
Avogadro's number |
Nr |
Reynolds number |
N⋅m |
newton-meter (work-energy unit) |
N⋅m |
newtons times meters (SI unit of torque) |
OE |
other energy |
P |
power |
P |
power of a lens |
P |
pressure |
p |
momentum |
p |
momentum magnitude |
p |
relativistic momentum |
ptot |
total momentum |
p'tot |
total momentum some time later |
Pabs |
absolute pressure |
Patm |
atmospheric pressure |
Patm |
standard atmospheric pressure |
PE |
potential energy |
PEel |
elastic potential energy |
PEelec |
electric potential energy |
PEs |
potential energy of a spring |
Pg |
gauge pressure |
Pin |
power consumption or input |
Pout |
useful power output going into useful work or a desired, form of energy |
Q |
latent heat |
Q |
net heat transferred into a system |
Q |
flow rate—volume per unit time flowing past a point |
+Q |
positive charge |
−Q |
negative charge |
q |
electron charge |
qp |
charge of a proton |
q |
test charge |
QF |
quality factor |
R |
activity, the rate of decay |
R |
radius of curvature of a spherical mirror |
R |
red quark color |
ˉR |
antired (cyan) quark color |
R |
resistance |
R |
resultant or total displacement |
R |
Rydberg constant |
R |
universal gas constant |
r |
distance from pivot point to the point where a force is applied |
r |
internal resistance |
r⊥ |
perpendicular lever arm |
r |
radius of a nucleus |
r |
radius of curvature |
r |
resistivity |
r or rad |
radiation dose unit |
rem |
roentgen equivalent man |
rad |
radian |
RBE |
relative biological effectiveness |
RC |
resistor and capacitor circuit |
rms |
root mean square |
rn |
radius of the nth H-atom orbit |
Rp |
total resistance of a parallel connection |
Rs |
total resistance of a series connection |
Rs |
Schwarzschild radius |
S |
entropy |
S |
intrinsic spin (intrinsic angular momentum) |
S |
magnitude of the intrinsic (internal) spin angular momentum |
S |
shear modulus |
S |
strangeness quantum number |
s |
quark flavor strange |
s |
second (fundamental SI unit of time) |
s |
spin quantum number |
s |
total displacement |
secθ |
secant |
sinθ |
sine |
sz |
z-component of spin angular momentum |
T |
period—time to complete one oscillation |
T |
temperature |
Tc |
critical temperature—temperature below which a material becomes a superconductor |
T |
tension |
T |
tesla (magnetic field strength B) |
t |
quark flavor top or truth |
t |
time |
t1/2 |
half-life—the time in which half of the original nuclei decay |
tanθ |
tangent |
U |
internal energy |
u |
quark flavor up |
u |
unified atomic mass unit |
u |
velocity of an object relative to an observer |
u' |
velocity relative to another observer |
V |
electric potential |
V |
terminal voltage |
V |
volt (unit) |
V |
volume |
v |
relative velocity between two observers |
v |
speed of light in a material |
v |
velocity |
ˉv |
average fluid velocity |
VB−VA |
change in potential |
vd |
drift velocity |
Vp |
transformer input voltage |
Vrms |
rms voltage |
Vs |
transformer output voltage |
vtot |
total velocity |
vw |
propagation speed of sound or other wave |
vw |
wave velocity |
W |
work |
W |
net work done by a system |
W |
watt |
w |
weight |
wfl |
weight of the fluid displaced by an object |
Wc |
total work done by all conservative forces |
Wnc |
total work done by all nonconservative forces |
Wout |
useful work output |
X |
amplitude |
X |
symbol for an element |
ZAXN |
notation for a particular nuclide |
x |
deformation or displacement from equilibrium |
x |
displacement of a spring from its undeformed position |
x |
horizontal axis |
XC |
capacitive reactance |
XL |
inductive reactance |
xrms |
root mean square diffusion distance |
y |
vertical axis |
Y |
elastic modulus or Young's modulus |
Z |
atomic number (number of protons in a nucleus) |
Z |
impedance |
Table
D1