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Biology for AP® Courses

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Biology for AP® CoursesScience Practice Challenge Questions

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. The Chemistry of Life
    1. 1 The Study of Life
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 The Science of Biology
      3. 1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology
      4. Key Terms
      5. Chapter Summary
      6. Review Questions
      7. Critical Thinking Questions
      8. Test Prep for AP® Courses
    2. 2 The Chemical Foundation of Life
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
      3. 2.2 Water
      4. 2.3 Carbon
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 3 Biological Macromolecules
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
      3. 3.2 Carbohydrates
      4. 3.3 Lipids
      5. 3.4 Proteins
      6. 3.5 Nucleic Acids
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  3. The Cell
    1. 4 Cell Structure
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 Studying Cells
      3. 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells
      4. 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells
      5. 4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins
      6. 4.5 Cytoskeleton
      7. 4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Summary
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
      12. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      13. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 5 Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 Components and Structure
      3. 5.2 Passive Transport
      4. 5.3 Active Transport
      5. 5.4 Bulk Transport
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 6 Metabolism
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 Energy and Metabolism
      3. 6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy
      4. 6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics
      5. 6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
      6. 6.5 Enzymes
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 7 Cellular Respiration
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 Energy in Living Systems
      3. 7.2 Glycolysis
      4. 7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
      5. 7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation
      6. 7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen
      7. 7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
      8. 7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    5. 8 Photosynthesis
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis
      3. 8.2 The Light-Dependent Reaction of Photosynthesis
      4. 8.3 Using Light to Make Organic Molecules
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    6. 9 Cell Communication
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
      3. 9.2 Propagation of the Signal
      4. 9.3 Response to the Signal
      5. 9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    7. 10 Cell Reproduction
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 Cell Division
      3. 10.2 The Cell Cycle
      4. 10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
      5. 10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle
      6. 10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  4. Genetics
    1. 11 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 The Process of Meiosis
      3. 11.2 Sexual Reproduction
      4. Key Terms
      5. Chapter Summary
      6. Review Questions
      7. Critical Thinking Questions
      8. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      9. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 12 Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability
      3. 12.2 Characteristics and Traits
      4. 12.3 Laws of Inheritance
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 13 Modern Understandings of Inheritance
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkages
      3. 13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
      4. Key Terms
      5. Chapter Summary
      6. Review Questions
      7. Critical Thinking Questions
      8. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      9. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 14 DNA Structure and Function
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
      3. 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing
      4. 14.3 Basics of DNA Replication
      5. 14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
      6. 14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
      7. 14.6 DNA Repair
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Summary
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
      12. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      13. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    5. 15 Genes and Proteins
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 The Genetic Code
      3. 15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription
      4. 15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription
      5. 15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
      6. 15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    6. 16 Gene Regulation
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression
      3. 16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
      4. 16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
      5. 16.4 Eukaryotic Transcriptional Gene Regulation
      6. 16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
      7. 16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
      8. 16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    7. 17 Biotechnology and Genomics
      1. Introduction
      2. 17.1 Biotechnology
      3. 17.2 Mapping Genomes
      4. 17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing
      5. 17.4 Applying Genomics
      6. 17.5 Genomics and Proteomics
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  5. Evolutionary Processes
    1. 18 Evolution and Origin of Species
      1. Introduction
      2. 18.1 Understanding Evolution
      3. 18.2 Formation of New Species
      4. 18.3 Reconnection and Rates of Speciation
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 19 The Evolution of Populations
      1. Introduction
      2. 19.1 Population Evolution
      3. 19.2 Population Genetics
      4. 19.3 Adaptive Evolution
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 20 Phylogenies and the History of Life
      1. Introduction
      2. 20.1 Organizing Life on Earth
      3. 20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships
      4. 20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  6. Biological Diversity
    1. 21 Viruses
      1. Introduction
      2. 21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification
      3. 21.2 Virus Infection and Hosts
      4. 21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
      5. 21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 22 Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
      1. Introduction
      2. 22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity
      3. 22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes
      4. 22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism
      5. 22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans
      6. 22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  7. Plant Structure and Function
    1. 23 Plant Form and Physiology
      1. Introduction
      2. 23.1 The Plant Body
      3. 23.2 Stems
      4. 23.3 Roots
      5. 23.4 Leaves
      6. 23.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
      7. 23.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Summary
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
      12. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      13. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  8. Animal Structure and Function
    1. 24 The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function
      1. Introduction
      2. 24.1 Animal Form and Function
      3. 24.2 Animal Primary Tissues
      4. 24.3 Homeostasis
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
    2. 25 Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
      1. Introduction
      2. 25.1 Digestive Systems
      3. 25.2 Nutrition and Energy Production
      4. 25.3 Digestive System Processes
      5. 25.4 Digestive System Regulation
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 26 The Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 26.1 Neurons and Glial Cells
      3. 26.2 How Neurons Communicate
      4. 26.3 The Central Nervous System
      5. 26.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
      6. 26.5 Nervous System Disorders
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 27 Sensory Systems
      1. Introduction
      2. 27.1 Sensory Processes
      3. 27.2 Somatosensation
      4. 27.3 Taste and Smell
      5. 27.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
      6. 27.5 Vision
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    5. 28 The Endocrine System
      1. Introduction
      2. 28.1 Types of Hormones
      3. 28.2 How Hormones Work
      4. 28.3 Regulation of Body Processes
      5. 28.4 Regulation of Hormone Production
      6. 28.5 Endocrine Glands
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    6. 29 The Musculoskeletal System
      1. Introduction
      2. 29.1 Types of Skeletal Systems
      3. 29.2 Bone
      4. 29.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement
      5. 29.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    7. 30 The Respiratory System
      1. Introduction
      2. 30.1 Systems of Gas Exchange
      3. 30.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
      4. 30.3 Breathing
      5. 30.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    8. 31 The Circulatory System
      1. Introduction
      2. 31.1 Overview of the Circulatory System
      3. 31.2 Components of the Blood
      4. 31.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
      5. 31.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    9. 32 Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
      1. Introduction
      2. 32.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance
      3. 32.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
      4. 32.3 Excretion Systems
      5. 32.4 Nitrogenous Wastes
      6. 32.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
    10. 33 The Immune System
      1. Introduction
      2. 33.1 Innate Immune Response
      3. 33.2 Adaptive Immune Response
      4. 33.3 Antibodies
      5. 33.4 Disruptions in the Immune System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    11. 34 Animal Reproduction and Development
      1. Introduction
      2. 34.1 Reproduction Methods
      3. 34.2 Fertilization
      4. 34.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
      5. 34.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
      6. 34.5 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
      7. 34.6 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
      8. 34.7 Human Pregnancy and Birth
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  9. Ecology
    1. 35 Ecology and the Biosphere
      1. Introduction
      2. 35.1 The Scope of Ecology
      3. 35.2 Biogeography
      4. 35.3 Terrestrial Biomes
      5. 35.4 Aquatic Biomes
      6. 35.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 36 Population and Community Ecology
      1. Introduction
      2. 36.1 Population Demography
      3. 36.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection
      4. 36.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth
      5. 36.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation
      6. 36.5 Human Population Growth
      7. 36.6 Community Ecology
      8. 36.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 37 Ecosystems
      1. Introduction
      2. 37.1 Ecology for Ecosystems
      3. 37.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems
      4. 37.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 38 Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
      1. Introduction
      2. 38.1 The Biodiversity Crisis
      3. 38.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
      4. 38.3 Threats to Biodiversity
      5. 38.4 Preserving Biodiversity
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
  10. A | The Periodic Table of Elements
  11. B | Geological Time
  12. C | Measurements and the Metric System
  13. Index
72.

Many hormones repress or enhance protein expression by binding to transcription factors called nuclear receptors. Other hormones regulate processes by binding to cell surface receptors that induce cell signaling cascades.

A. Represent these two different processes for cell-cell communication by creating a flow chart showing the direction of information in a process regulating homeostasis such as the control of blood sugar or water loss. Annotate your diagram to describe the key elements of each step in the particular example that you choose.

B. Justify the claim that a developmental process is more likely to involve nuclear receptors, while regulation of metabolism is more likely to involve cell surface receptors.

The lancelet is a chordate, fish-like filter feeder that buries itself in marine sands. Their ancestors and vertebrates diverged approximately 500 million years ago. Lancelet and human are members of a superphylum of animals with bilateral symmetry, Deuterostomia. In one model of animal evolution, the other superphylum, Protostomia, includes fruit fly and nematode. In an alternative model, insects are included with lancelet and human in a superphylum called the Coelomata, and the nematode is separate. Molecular studies of fruit fly, lancelet, human, and nematode show that homologous genes, when present, are strongly conserved. For example, the genes for the receptors of germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) and retinoids, hormones that regulate cellular differentiation during development, are present in each species. Homologous genes for nuclear receptor estrogen and thyroid hormone are present in lancelet and human but missing in nematode and fruit fly. Genes for the vitamin D receptor are absent in fruit fly but are present in the other species.

Many neuropeptide hormones found in human, fruit fly and nematode such as GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) and the gonadotropins luteinizing and follicle stimulating hormones (LH and FSH) have not been found in lancelet. However, genes for the cell surface receptors activated by these hormones are expressed. The same is true for many different hormones and their corresponding receptors. A large number of such “orphan” nuclear receptors have been reported in animals where there is no evidence of the presence of the hormone to which they bind.

C. Analyze these data (a table to organize the data is suggested) for supporting evidence of the alternative superphylum, Coelomata. Consider:

  • separate selection of signaling molecules and the proteins that detect them
  • constitutive (always transcribed) expression
  • the possible effect of gene deletion

D. Evaluate the legitimacy of a claim that a hormone is not present although the receptor for that hormone has been found.

Genes for receptors and the hormones to which they bind are often found on different chromosomes and have co-evolved. Other ligands may have an affinity for orphaned receptors. By understanding the three-dimensional shape of the ligand binding site of a nuclear receptor, new drugs can be developed to match the site and regulate expression when the endocrine system fails. Even greater flexibility in drug design is allowed when small molecules, called positive (PAM) and negative (NAM) allosteric modulators, change the shape of the ligand binding site. The receptors for follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) were subjects in a drug discovery program using PAMs and NAMs (Nataraja et al., Frontiers in Endocrinology, 6, 2015).

E. Explain how the refinement of nuclear receptor by attachment of a molecule other than the ligand of the receptor can increase the level of expression of genes targeted by the transcription factor.

73.

Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The concentration of these hormones over time in females regulates the menstrual cycle. GnRH expressing neurons (GEN) are scattered throughout the forebrain and hypothalamus and secrete into ducts leading to the pituitary gland, causing the secretion of FSH and LH into the bloodstream. Ca+2 concentrations oscillate in time, changing the electric membrane potential of the GnRH neurons, GEN. The period of the oscillation is only a few seconds in duration. The mechanism controlling the oscillating membrane potential is unknown, but during maturation the frequency of the oscillations of the Ca+2 concentration in the GEN increases.

A. Explain how the absence of direct contact among the GnRH neurons and the coordinated release of FSH and LH suggest another timing mechanism.

An association of high concentrations of anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) and elevated LH levels among women with a common reproductive disorder called polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) caused investigators to study the effects of AMH on membrane potentials of GnRH expressing neurons. The researchers (Cimino et al., Nature Communications, 7, 2016) found that very small concentrations of AMH initiated oscillations.

B. The graph illustrates the time dependence of LH and estrogen in the blood of a female. A goal of research in human reproductive physiology is to construct a model that accounts for the spike in luteinizing hormone at approximately 14 days. Predict how a positive feedback loop involving the release of a hormone such as AMH could be used to account for this response. Explain why estrogen is probably not a good candidate for use in this model.

This figure shows a line graph. The vertical bar is labeled Concentration and the horizontal bar is labeled Time (Days) with tick marks at 0, 14, and 28. The inner left is labeled Estrogen. It has a blue line that crawls up from 0, rounds around 14 and drops down slightly, to round up again and finally come to a close around 28. The red line stays dormant before spiking at 14 and falling back down to nothing. The inner part of the red line is labeled LH.
Figure 28.21

FSH and LH inhibit production of GnRH. Exposure of ovarian follicles to high levels of FSH and LH causes the follicle to rupture, releasing an oocyte to the oviduct. Birth control drugs suppress the LH surge by maintaining a constant blood concentration of progesterone (PG). After 40 years of use, the mechanism of suppression is still unknown. However, we do know that during pregnancy progesterone levels remain elevated and that cells in both the pituitary gland and GnRH expressing neurons (GEN) have progesterone nuclear receptors (PGR) that act as transcription factors to either i) inhibit production of GnRH possibly by blocking transcription of GNRH1, the gene coding for GnRH, or ii) inhibit production of LH by blocking transcription in the GnRH neurons of the gene, LH1, coding for LH.

C. Construct two alternative explanations of the role of progesterone as a birth control drug. Your explanation can be in the form of descriptions or in terms of diagrams involving the key molecular components PG, PGR, LH, LH1, GEN, GnRH, and GnRH1.

An endocrine disruptor is a molecule with a structure that mimics a hormone and can interfere with regulation. The chemical bis-phenol A (BPA) has been used for many years in the production of plastics and is now widespread. BPA mimics estrogen. BPA is present in most humans at the concentration of 5 micrograms per kilogram of body weight. Whether or not that concentration is harmful is uncertain.

In a study of Ca+2 oscillations in GnRH expressing neurons, Klenke and co-workers (Endocrinology, 157, 2016) presented evidence that BPA switches off oscillations even at these very low concentrations. This suggests a mechanism for the results from an earlier investigation in which female rats were fed low and high levels of estrogen (EE) and BPA during pregnancy. Measurements were made of the levels of expression of an estrogen nuclear receptor in the hypothalamus of the pups just after birth (Cao et al., Toxicological Sciences, 133, 2013). Their data are shown in the graph below.

This figure is a bar graph. The vertical line is labeled  ER mRNA level. These bars are pink for female and blue for male. From left to right the results are. For Naïve there is long pink line, and a shorter blue line. For vehicle there is a shorter pink line, and a even shorter blue line. For the second graph the vertical line this time reads ER mRNA level.  The horizontal axis reads Vehicle, EE low, EE high, BPA low, PBA high. From left to right they are listed. The first is vehicle and there is a longer pink line and a shorter blue line. For EE low there is a slightly longer pink line than blue line. For EE high there is a long pink line with a slightly shorter pink line. For BPA there is a medium pink line with a slightly shorter blue line. And for BPA high there is a slightly shorter pink line with a slightly shorter blue line.
Figure 28.22

Using the data, the graph at the top compares expression in a “do-nothing” control (Naïve) and a control (Vehicle) in which a feeding tube is used to deliver nutrients during pregnancy. The graph at the bottom shows expression levels in pups born to female rats with four different treatments of estrogen (EE) and bis-phenol A (BPA).

D. Compared to the naïve control where homeostasis is not disrupted, qualitatively analyze these data for the disruption of the endocrine system in offspring of a female rat exposed to both physical and chemical stresses.

E. In female sheep, the estrus cycle is coordinated by the length of the day and does not begin until day length shortens. The gestation period of sheep is roughly 150 days.

  • Predict the effect on fitness of this control of gene expression by an external stimulus.
  • The “ram effect” is a livestock management practice in Australia to induce ovulation by exposing an anestrus (when the estrus cycle is inactive) ewe to a ram. Compare this phenomenon with the results of delivering nutrients and hormones using a feeding tube to construct a possible explanation for the ram effect.
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