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Biology for AP® Courses

Science Practice Challenge Questions

Biology for AP® CoursesScience Practice Challenge Questions

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. The Chemistry of Life
    1. 1 The Study of Life
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 The Science of Biology
      3. 1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology
      4. Key Terms
      5. Chapter Summary
      6. Review Questions
      7. Critical Thinking Questions
      8. Test Prep for AP® Courses
    2. 2 The Chemical Foundation of Life
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
      3. 2.2 Water
      4. 2.3 Carbon
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 3 Biological Macromolecules
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
      3. 3.2 Carbohydrates
      4. 3.3 Lipids
      5. 3.4 Proteins
      6. 3.5 Nucleic Acids
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  3. The Cell
    1. 4 Cell Structure
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 Studying Cells
      3. 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells
      4. 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells
      5. 4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins
      6. 4.5 Cytoskeleton
      7. 4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Summary
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
      12. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      13. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 5 Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 Components and Structure
      3. 5.2 Passive Transport
      4. 5.3 Active Transport
      5. 5.4 Bulk Transport
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 6 Metabolism
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 Energy and Metabolism
      3. 6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy
      4. 6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics
      5. 6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
      6. 6.5 Enzymes
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 7 Cellular Respiration
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 Energy in Living Systems
      3. 7.2 Glycolysis
      4. 7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
      5. 7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation
      6. 7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen
      7. 7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
      8. 7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    5. 8 Photosynthesis
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis
      3. 8.2 The Light-Dependent Reaction of Photosynthesis
      4. 8.3 Using Light to Make Organic Molecules
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    6. 9 Cell Communication
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
      3. 9.2 Propagation of the Signal
      4. 9.3 Response to the Signal
      5. 9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    7. 10 Cell Reproduction
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 Cell Division
      3. 10.2 The Cell Cycle
      4. 10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
      5. 10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle
      6. 10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  4. Genetics
    1. 11 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 The Process of Meiosis
      3. 11.2 Sexual Reproduction
      4. Key Terms
      5. Chapter Summary
      6. Review Questions
      7. Critical Thinking Questions
      8. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      9. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 12 Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability
      3. 12.2 Characteristics and Traits
      4. 12.3 Laws of Inheritance
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 13 Modern Understandings of Inheritance
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkages
      3. 13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
      4. Key Terms
      5. Chapter Summary
      6. Review Questions
      7. Critical Thinking Questions
      8. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      9. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 14 DNA Structure and Function
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
      3. 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing
      4. 14.3 Basics of DNA Replication
      5. 14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
      6. 14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
      7. 14.6 DNA Repair
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Summary
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
      12. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      13. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    5. 15 Genes and Proteins
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 The Genetic Code
      3. 15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription
      4. 15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription
      5. 15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
      6. 15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    6. 16 Gene Regulation
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression
      3. 16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
      4. 16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
      5. 16.4 Eukaryotic Transcriptional Gene Regulation
      6. 16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
      7. 16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
      8. 16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    7. 17 Biotechnology and Genomics
      1. Introduction
      2. 17.1 Biotechnology
      3. 17.2 Mapping Genomes
      4. 17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing
      5. 17.4 Applying Genomics
      6. 17.5 Genomics and Proteomics
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  5. Evolutionary Processes
    1. 18 Evolution and Origin of Species
      1. Introduction
      2. 18.1 Understanding Evolution
      3. 18.2 Formation of New Species
      4. 18.3 Reconnection and Rates of Speciation
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 19 The Evolution of Populations
      1. Introduction
      2. 19.1 Population Evolution
      3. 19.2 Population Genetics
      4. 19.3 Adaptive Evolution
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 20 Phylogenies and the History of Life
      1. Introduction
      2. 20.1 Organizing Life on Earth
      3. 20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships
      4. 20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  6. Biological Diversity
    1. 21 Viruses
      1. Introduction
      2. 21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification
      3. 21.2 Virus Infection and Hosts
      4. 21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
      5. 21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 22 Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
      1. Introduction
      2. 22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity
      3. 22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes
      4. 22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism
      5. 22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans
      6. 22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  7. Plant Structure and Function
    1. 23 Plant Form and Physiology
      1. Introduction
      2. 23.1 The Plant Body
      3. 23.2 Stems
      4. 23.3 Roots
      5. 23.4 Leaves
      6. 23.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
      7. 23.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Summary
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
      12. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      13. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  8. Animal Structure and Function
    1. 24 The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function
      1. Introduction
      2. 24.1 Animal Form and Function
      3. 24.2 Animal Primary Tissues
      4. 24.3 Homeostasis
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
    2. 25 Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
      1. Introduction
      2. 25.1 Digestive Systems
      3. 25.2 Nutrition and Energy Production
      4. 25.3 Digestive System Processes
      5. 25.4 Digestive System Regulation
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 26 The Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 26.1 Neurons and Glial Cells
      3. 26.2 How Neurons Communicate
      4. 26.3 The Central Nervous System
      5. 26.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
      6. 26.5 Nervous System Disorders
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 27 Sensory Systems
      1. Introduction
      2. 27.1 Sensory Processes
      3. 27.2 Somatosensation
      4. 27.3 Taste and Smell
      5. 27.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
      6. 27.5 Vision
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    5. 28 The Endocrine System
      1. Introduction
      2. 28.1 Types of Hormones
      3. 28.2 How Hormones Work
      4. 28.3 Regulation of Body Processes
      5. 28.4 Regulation of Hormone Production
      6. 28.5 Endocrine Glands
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    6. 29 The Musculoskeletal System
      1. Introduction
      2. 29.1 Types of Skeletal Systems
      3. 29.2 Bone
      4. 29.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement
      5. 29.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    7. 30 The Respiratory System
      1. Introduction
      2. 30.1 Systems of Gas Exchange
      3. 30.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
      4. 30.3 Breathing
      5. 30.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    8. 31 The Circulatory System
      1. Introduction
      2. 31.1 Overview of the Circulatory System
      3. 31.2 Components of the Blood
      4. 31.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
      5. 31.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    9. 32 Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
      1. Introduction
      2. 32.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance
      3. 32.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
      4. 32.3 Excretion Systems
      5. 32.4 Nitrogenous Wastes
      6. 32.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
    10. 33 The Immune System
      1. Introduction
      2. 33.1 Innate Immune Response
      3. 33.2 Adaptive Immune Response
      4. 33.3 Antibodies
      5. 33.4 Disruptions in the Immune System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      11. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    11. 34 Animal Reproduction and Development
      1. Introduction
      2. 34.1 Reproduction Methods
      3. 34.2 Fertilization
      4. 34.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
      5. 34.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
      6. 34.5 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
      7. 34.6 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
      8. 34.7 Human Pregnancy and Birth
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
  9. Ecology
    1. 35 Ecology and the Biosphere
      1. Introduction
      2. 35.1 The Scope of Ecology
      3. 35.2 Biogeography
      4. 35.3 Terrestrial Biomes
      5. 35.4 Aquatic Biomes
      6. 35.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Summary
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
      11. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      12. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    2. 36 Population and Community Ecology
      1. Introduction
      2. 36.1 Population Demography
      3. 36.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection
      4. 36.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth
      5. 36.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation
      6. 36.5 Human Population Growth
      7. 36.6 Community Ecology
      8. 36.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Summary
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
      13. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      14. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    3. 37 Ecosystems
      1. Introduction
      2. 37.1 Ecology for Ecosystems
      3. 37.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems
      4. 37.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Summary
      7. Review Questions
      8. Critical Thinking Questions
      9. Test Prep for AP® Courses
      10. Science Practice Challenge Questions
    4. 38 Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
      1. Introduction
      2. 38.1 The Biodiversity Crisis
      3. 38.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
      4. 38.3 Threats to Biodiversity
      5. 38.4 Preserving Biodiversity
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Summary
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
      10. Test Prep for AP® Courses
  10. A | The Periodic Table of Elements
  11. B | Geological Time
  12. C | Measurements and the Metric System
  13. Index
78.

That the uniformity of cell size in prokaryotes is independent of the conditions of cell growth has long been a puzzle. Suppose that cells grew for a random period of time and then divided. The largest and smallest, by sometimes dividing to make even larger or smaller cells, would be expected to broaden the distribution of cell sizes, as shown in the diagram on the left for a time, t2, after a time t1. Competing claims are made to explain the fact, however, that the distribution does not broaden: 1) There is a “timer” that initiates cell division, and 2) there is a volume threshold that, when reached, initiates cell division. Recently (Amir, Phys. Rev. Lett, 2014), a third model was suggested: From the end of the last cell division to the next, the cell volume increases by a constant value.

A graph showing the relationship between the number cells and cell size. The Y axis is labeled Number of cells. The X axis is labeled Cell size. The two bell shaped distribution curves are t 1 and t 2. T 1 is red and within T 2 which is purple.
Figure 22.30

A. Justify the claim of the third model by i) rejecting the two alternative claims, using the fact that growth rate depends on the availability of resources and considering that regulation of expression at a critical volume would require measurement of total volume by the cell, and ii) arguing that adding a constant volume before each cell division would narrow the cell size distribution.

B. Design a plan to test both the most recent model and the timer model.

79.

Gram-negative bacteria have an inner cytoplasmic membrane separated by a peptidoglycan layer from a second outer membrane. In addition, transport proteins called efflux pumps span this double membrane and actively eliminate chemicals such as antibiotics that pass through porins on the outer membrane. These efflux pumps can confer multi-drug resistance, a situation that is threatening human health.

A. Explain how combining a drug that disrupts ATP synthesis in bacteria with antibiotics is a possible strategy for the treatment of bacterial infections caused by antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacteria.

ATP synthesis in prokaryotes is accomplished by a protein that connects the extracellular space to the cytoplasm. In gram-negative bacteria, the proton gradient that supplies the free energy to convert ADP into ATP is established across the inner membrane.

B. Predict differences in the interactions of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells with a drug molecule that successfully targets ATP synthesis and provide reasoning for your predictions.

In gram-positive bacteria, ATP synthesis is accomplished by a protein that spans the single membrane and the outer cell wall. During the production of yogurt and wine, which rely on gram-positive bacteria, the pH is controlled. Sodium bicarbonate secretions from the pancreas maintain the pH of the human intestine, where many beneficial methanogens are gram-positive bacteria.

C. Explain why homeostasis for gram-positive bacteria requires control of extracellular pH.

80.

Cyanobacteria are single-celled organisms with the capacity to fix nitrogen, N2. Some cyanobacteria cooperatively aggregate as filaments, and heterocysts may form at intervals along the filament between a pair of vegetative (actively growing) cells. Heterocysts are specialized cells that express certain genes when nitrogen becomes limiting. The nitrogenase complex converts the nitrogen in N2 into NH3 (ammonia). This enzyme functions only under anaerobic conditions that are, in part, enforced by an O2 barrier surrounding the cytoplasm of the heterocyst, as shown below.

A diagram illustrating nitrogen fixation in heterocysts. Cyanobacteria heterocyst has paired with a vegetative cell. The nitrogenase complex converts the nitrogen in N 2 into ammonia. ATP is synthesized in the heterocysts by photophosphorylation.
Figure 22.31

A. Other modifications displayed in the diagram maintain an anaerobic state and synthesize ammonia from N2. Identify four modifications of vegetative cells, either by their addition to or omission from the heterocyst. Refine the representation by drawing a line between each of the three numbered circles and the feature.

B. Further refine the representation by providing a brief description of the role of each modification in either regulating oxygen or synthesizing ammonia.

The Krebs cycle in prokaryotes and eukaryotes differs. In prokaryotes, the Krebs cycle occurs in the cytoplasm and the intermediate 2-oxoglutarate (-ketoglutarate) is absent.

C. Construct a representation of the regulation of genes encoding the nitrogen fixation system using the elements below. The irregular shapes are either metabolites or transcription factors, NtcA, HetR, and PatS. In your representation, label each shape using the names on the left in the figure below. Your representation must account for these observations:

  • when nitrogen is limiting, 2-oxoglutarate concentration in the cytoplasm increases
  • HetR is transcribed when 2-oxoglutarate concentrations are low
  • PatS is transcribed when 2-oxoglutarate concentrations are low
  • nitrogenase is transcribed when HetR concentrations are high and PatS concentrations are low
  • when PatS concentrations are high, nifX genes are not transcribed
figure using irregular shapes to represent metabolites or transcription factors. There is a line of shapes at the top. The first is a relatively small rectangle, the second is a dome-shaped structure with a rectangular bottom, the third is a rectangle with a small knob on its left bottom edge, the fourth is a rectangle with a semicircle cut out of the bottom edge, and the fifth is a rectangle with a small knob on its left bottom edge. The second line of shapes are rectangles labeled NtcA, hetR gene, nifX genes, and patS gene. At the bottom is an oval labeled Nitrogenase. To the left of the shapes is a list. 2 oxoglutarate, PatA, HetR, and PatS.
Figure 22.32

D. Heterocysts form along the filament separated by a fixed number of vegetative cells. Based on your model of the regulation of heterocyst development, make and support a claim that accounts for this pattern.

81.

Escherichia coli Strain A is able to grow in a minimal medium only when supplemented with methionine and biotin. Strain B is able to grow in a minimal medium only when supplemented with threonine, leucine, and thiamine. The two strains are incubated together in a medium containing each supplement. They are then transferred to a minimal medium with no supplements, and each strain is able to grow under these conditions.

A. Describe the evidence that supports information exchange between Strain A and Strain B, and the mechanisms that can account for this behavior demonstrated by Lederberg and Tatum (Nature, 1946).

Colistin is regarded as a last-resort antibiotic in the treatment of multi-drug-resistant, gram-negative bacteria. The MCR-1 gene that confers colistin resistance was recently detected in a plasmid found in E. coli from the intestines of human patients (Liu et al, Lancet Infect. Dis., 2016). Colistin is cheap to produce, is often used as a feed supplement for domesticated animals (12,000 metric tons per year in 2015), and its use is increasing. Colistin is also unstable in water (Healan et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 2012).

B. Describe the possible biological consequences of an immediate ban on the use of colistin in agriculture.

82.

Life on Earth is sustained by four processes that are unique to prokaryotes: 1) methanogens reduce hydrogen or carbon atoms to produce methane; 2) methanotrophs combine methane with oxygen to form formaldehyde; 3) nitrogen fixation converts N2 into ammonia; and 4) nitrification converts ammonia into nitrates. These processes recycle matter, maintaining the carbon (1 and 2) and nitrogen (3 and 4) cycles.

Methanogens are strictly anaerobic. Estimates of global fluxes of methane from major sources (Kirschke, Nature Geoscience, 2013, in units of 1012 g C/year) are shown in the figure below. Agricultural sources are predominately the microbiomes of ruminants (cows, goats, etc.) and rice cultivated in shallow ponds where anoxic compost and crop residues promote methanogen growth on roots. Other major human activities that contribute to atmospheric methane levels are landfills and natural gas drilling.

A figure labeled Major Fluxes of Methane (C H 4). Five arrows pointing to the right towards a larger arrow that is also pointing right. The first arrow is labeled Methanotrophs (30 x 10^12 g C/year). The second arrow is labeled Agriculture (219 x 10^12 g C/year). The third arrow is labeled Wetlands (175 x 10^12 g C/year). The fourth arrow is Other human sources (125 x 10^12 g C/year). The fifth arrow is labeled Other natural sources (45 x 10^12 g C/year). The large arrow is labeled O H capture (525 x 10^12 g C/year).
Figure 22.33

The fate of this methane is also shown. Most reacts with OH in the lower atmosphere to make formic acid, which then decomposes into carbon dioxide and water. Methanotrophs consume the remaining methane.

Methane is a component of the carbon cycle, but it is much less significant than carbon dioxide, whose major fluxes are shown in units of 1015 g C/year (NASA, 2015). Oceanic uptake and loss of CO2 are primarily abiotic. Prokaryotic marine organisms account for approximately 50% of the biotic exchanges.

A figure labeled Major Fluxes of Carbon Dioxide (C O 2). There are four arrows pointing left and two arrows pointing right. The first arrow pointing left is labeled Carbon fuel (7 x 10^15 g C/year). The second arrow pointing left is labeled Respiration (118 x 10^15 g C/year). The third arrow pointing left is labeled Ocean loss (97 x 10^15 g C/year)/ The fourth arrow pointing left is labeled O H capture (0.5 x 10^15 g C/year). The first arrow pointing right is labeled Photosynthesis (120 x 10^15 g C/year). The second arrow pointing left is labeled Ocean uptake (100 x 10^15 g C/year).
Figure 22.34

A. Compare quantitatively the rates of carbon cycling as methane between the biosphere and atmosphere. Calculate the percentage of methane production that is anthropocentric (due to human actions).

B. Assuming that the rates of carbon dioxide exchange shown in the diagram are accurate, analyze these data to identify a missing contribution to the carbon budget.

Recently, it was discovered that ruminants fed nitrooxypropanoic acid reduced their methane release from digestion by approximately 50% and increased the rate of meat production by as much as 80% (E. Duin et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, 2016).

C. Since methane is a greenhouse gas, its release into the atmosphere further increases global temperatures. It has been claimed that a feed supplement program will reduce the effects of climate change. Predict the consequences of such a program and provide reasoning for your prediction.

A vertical profile of methane and oxygen below the surface of a rice paddy are shown in the graph below (Lee et al., Front. Microbiol, 25, 2015). Also shown are estimates of the relative abundance of all genera of methanotrophs (red line) and methanogens (blue line) as a function of depth. Rice paddies are the largest contributor to agricultural methane production. The estimates were based on extraction and analysis of ribosomal RNA from the soil.

A figure of two graphs labeled Shallow and Deep Concentration Profiles in a Rice Field. The graph on the left, labeled Shallow concentration profile A, is showing the relationship between depth, relative methane concentration and relative oxygen concentration. The Y Axis is labeled Depth. The bottom X axis is labeled Relative methane concentration. The top X axis is labeled Relative oxygen concentration. The right graph, labeled Deep concentration profile B, is showing the relationship between depth and relative methane concentration. The Y axis is labeled Depth. The X axis is labeled Relative methane concentration. A key at the bottom labels the red line as Methanotrophs. The blue line labeled Methanogens. The triangle is labeled C H 4 and the circle is labeled O 2.
Figure 22.35

D. Justify the selection of these measurements of the concentrations of two types of microbes and the gases that are consumed or produced to the development of a quantitative understanding of the habitat range of both groups and the control of methane release from rice fields.

83.

The human gut provides a habitat for approximately 100 trillion bacteria. Some sources claim that the surface area of the cells lining the small and large intestines is between 150 and 300 square meters and compare this area to that of a tennis court. Recent measurements, however, show that the surface area of the gut is closer to that of a studio apartment (Helander and Fandriks, Jour. Gastro, 2014) and is roughly 50 square meters.

A. Calculate the cellular surface area of the 100 trillion (1014) microbes in the typical human gut, assuming that the cells are spherical with an average radius of 0.001 mm. Use this calculated surface area to predict the relative rates of procurement of nutrients by both microbes and the host cells lining the large and small intestines.

Humans compete with microbes for nutrients, but the relationship is mutually beneficial. Between 10 and 30% of ingested food remains undigested before reaching the large intestine. Some microbial waste products, particularly H2 and CH4, are not resources for the host. But short-chain fatty acids like acetic, propionic, and butyric acids are resources that microbes extract from the undigested fraction. The large intestine of the adult human has a length of approximately 1.5 meters with a volume between 6 and 7 liters. The total volume of gut microbes is just a few hundred milliliters.

B. Predict the length of a large intestine with equivalent recovery of resources and the same transit times through the bowel if, rather than 100 trillion organisms with a total volume of 1 L, there were 100 billion (1011) organisms, each with a volume of 10-8 mL (the approximate volume of the epithelial cells lining the intestine).

The relationship between gut microbes and their host is more complex than simple resource recovery, as shown in the figure of the microbiome below. PYY is a hormone that works with the enteric nervous system lining the intestinal wall to cause changes in the period of contractions of muscles (motility) that push material through the intestine.

C. Based on the diagram, summarize the regulation of appetite by the microbiome and the elimination of waste by the host in terms of feedback loops and chemical signaling.

A diagram of the large intestines. The top left of the figure shows the large intestine. The top right shows a magnified segment of large intestine. The segment labels the polysaccharides, bacteria and epithelial cells. The bottom right of the figure shows an increased magnification of the segment. Labeled inside the cells are the SCFA positive receptors, PYY, and G receptor cascade. Arrows going outside the cells are labeled Decreased motility, Enteric nervous system, Central nervous system.
Figure 22.36

The microbial population of the intestine is referred to as the microbiome. Undernutrition and obesity are both symptoms of malnutrition, and populations of the microbiome vary with the type of malnutrition (Brown et al., Nutr Clin Pract, 2012). The microbiome of humans can be transplanted into germ-free (GF) mice to observe the effects of diet in a controlled experiment of relatively short duration. The microbiomes of healthy and undernourished 6-month-old children were transplanted into GF mice whose growth is graphed below. Growth in both length and weight were reduced when the source of the microbiome was the undernourished child (after Blanton et al., Science, 2016). Both groups of mice were provided with the same nutritional resources.

Graph labeled Growth of Microbiomes from Healthy and Undernourished 6 month old Children After Transplantation into Germ Free Mice. The Y axis is labeled Percent initial weight. The X axis is labeled Number of days after transplant. The key at the bottom labels the blue line as Microbiome from healthy 6 month old child. The red line is labeled as Microbiome from undernourished 6 month old child.
Figure 22.37

D. Pose two scientific questions that, when investigated, could lead to a solution for the stunting of growth caused by undernourishment in early infancy that affects millions of children.

Human growth hormone stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 is a messenger that activates the production of bone cells called osteocytes. The data (after Schwarzer et al., Science, 2016) show concentrations of this growth factor in mice with no microbiome (GF), wild-type mice whose microbiome and growth provide a control (WT), and mice whose microbiome population is composed entirely of Lactobacillus plantarum (two strains labeled L1 and L2). Lactobacillus is one of many hundred genera of microbial inhabitants of a healthy human intestine.

Bar graph labeled Concentration of IGF 1 in Mice with No Microbiome, Wild Type Mice, and Mice Whose Microbiome is Composed Entirely of Lactobacillus plantarum. The Y axis is labeled Concentration of IGF 1. X axis has labels for 28 days and 56 days. The key at the bottom labels the red bars GF for Germ free mice with no microbiome. The purple bars are labeled WT for Wild type mice (control). The dark blue bars are labeled L1. The light blue bars are labeled L2. L1 and L2 represent Mice with Lactobacillus colonization.
Figure 22.38

E. Analyze these data in terms of the potential for disruption of human bone growth due to loss or reduction in diversity of the microbiome.

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