1.1 Computing from Inception to Today

Mobile Devices

The concept of a mobile phone has been around a lot longer than you might imagine—since the early 1900s, in fact. In 1908, a patent was issued for a wireless telephone in Kentucky, but the idea was considered so far-fetched that its inventors were accused of fraud. (The case was later dropped, and the invention was never produced.) Not long after, during World War I, Germany was testing radio-based wireless telephones (essentially two-way radios) on trains traveling from Berlin. By 1940, this technology had improved, and handheld receivers were widely available and used in World War II, prompting the private sector to use this emerging technology (Figure 1.12a).

Bell Laboratories, founded in the late nineteenth century by Alexander Graham Bell, was a key player in bringing mobile phones to the public. In 1946, Bell Labs developed a system to offer a mobile phone service in cars. Because of the limited number of channels available, the system quickly reached capacity, and was mostly used by taxi drivers and emergency vehicles localized in urban areas. From the 1950s to the 1980s, the technology continued to develop, built mostly around radio frequencies.

The first cellular technology using automated cellular networks, called 1G or first generation, was introduced in Tokyo in 1979. It was deployed to other countries soon after and, in 1981, reached North America, where it was known as the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS). This led to the launch of the first truly mobile cell phone, Motorola’s DynaTAC, in 1983 (Figure 1.12b). With a price point of just under $4,000, the unit was not designed for the everyday consumer. Motorola believed the phone’s customers would include realtors and large-company executives who could afford the purchase price as well as the $50-per-month plan to use the device. But they underestimated the appeal of the cell phone. Sales far exceeded projections, and the concept of the cell phone quickly replaced the unwieldy mobile car phones of the past.

The overwhelming demand, along with advances in digital technology, prompted the migration of the old AMPS networks to a digital format, an effort that began in 1990 and was completed in the early 2000s. The popularity of the cell phone also prompted competition between European and American networks. 2G cellular networks emerged, providing basic short message service (SMS) text messaging capabilities. The first text message was sent in 1993 in Finland. The 2G network had better security than 1G and was also much faster. These changes in network capabilities influenced the development of phone technologies.

Although smartphones are seen as a rather new technology, the first smartphone was actually introduced by IBM in 1993. The Simon Personal Communicator (Figure 1.12c) looked very different from modern smartphones. Its features included a calendar, address book, and email service. The phone even had a touchscreen. The price point, around $1,000, was high at the time, equivalent to about $2,000 in today’s dollars. The device was well received in the United States, where consumers viewed it primarily as a digital personal assistant that just happened to have phone capabilities. Though popular with business executives, the Simon stayed on the market for less than a year and sold only around 50,000 units, but it did pave the way for the smartphones of today. Other notable phone introductions soon to follow were the first flip phone (the Motorola StarTAC in 1997) and the first BlackBerry device in 1999.

Figure 1.12 (a) This two-way wireless communication device was used during World War II to communicate critical information among troops. (b) Motorola’s DynaTAC was the first mobile phone to use cellular technologies rather than radio frequencies. DynaTAC was marketed toward wealthy business professionals at a price point of nearly $4,000. (c) The first smartphone, a personal assistant device, was a precursor to today’s cell phones. (credit a: modification of “Bärbar radio” by Flygvapenmuseum, CC BY; credit b: modification of “MF013: Figure 2.8” by Rosenfeld Media/Flickr, CC BY 2.0; credit c: modification of “Simon FIRST Smart Phone” by Mike Mozart/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

As the technology rapidly advanced, 3G and then 4G networks soon followed. This allowed faster speeds as well as streaming services—4G networks were nearly 10 times faster than their 3G counterparts. With this expanded network accessibility, phones rapidly came to be seen less as a luxury and more as a need.

Apple’s introduction of the iPhone in 2008 had a major impact on the market. With this introduction came the iPhone operating system (iOS), exclusive to Apple. An operating system is one of the most important components of a computing device. It runs the interactions between the device’s hardware and software components (more on these later in the chapter). The second most popular operating system to emerge during this time was the Android operating system, first developed in 2005 and later acquired by Google. These two operating systems, each of which has advantages and disadvantages, are engaged in an ongoing battle for market share. At the end of 2022, the Android operating system had a majority share of the market worldwide (nearly 72 percent). Today, nearly 90 percent of Americans own a cell phone; of those, nearly 60 percent are smartphones.

The adoption of mobile phone technology has had a large economic impact in the United States and worldwide, giving rise to new products (cell phone cases, pop sockets, wireless earbuds, screen protectors) that did not exist before mobile phones hit the market. Other industries such as clothing and handbags have also been impacted: It’s now commonplace for a jacket to have a specific phone pocket, and many handbags and backpacks have slots designed to accommodate most cell phones. The creation of mobile phone apps has developed into an entirely new industry that has created many jobs worldwide. And beyond these tangible effects of the cell phone boom, there have been some significant changes in how we operate in our business and professional lives. About 40 percent of all business transactions are conducted on a mobile phone device. Companies rely on mobile technology to conduct essential correspondence with their employees and their customers.

Gains in efficiency and collaboration across geographic boundaries are now easier than ever. Consumer product companies use mobile devices to advertise in new ways and to expand their market reach. We may use the technology to stay in contact with out-of-town family members, to connect to our bank or our health-care provider, and to make everyday purchases. Many children growing up today have never had a home landline phone ring or not even heard a dial tone. The dial tone is a sound that indicates that a landline is active. It can be difficult to imagine a world before cell phones, even though it was not all that long ago they first emerged on the market.

Digital Image, Video, and Audio Capture Devices

Image, video, and audio capture are another area of technological growth that many people now use daily. Photography was invented in the mid-1800s, and it took a century and a half for digital imagery to emerge, in 1957. Using binary digits, Richard Kirsch was able to convert a photograph of his son into a digital image using the only programmable computer available in the United States at the time. The photograph was scanned electronically in small squares of the image, now called pixels, and reconfigured using white and black, as Figure 1.13 shows. The binary data for the image could then be stored on the computer. This development, along with the invention of the microchip, laid the foundation for future work in digital imaging.

Figure 1.13 Kirsch took a photo of his son Walden and was able to capture the image digitally using binary digits. Part (a) shows the digital scan of Walden Kirsch from (b), the original photo. (credit a: modification of “NBSFirstScanImage” by Russell A. Kirsch/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit b: modification of “Walden Kirsch” by Russell A. Kirsch/ Portland Art Museum, Public Domain)

The scientific community, government, and the military soon took notice of the advantages of using the digital approach to capturing images. Beginning in the 1960s, NASA used the technology to transmit images back from space through television receivers. Tech companies created new storage methods, such as saving images to tape. RCA built the photo-dielectric tape camera for NASA, which was able to store about 120 images on tape—a huge improvement over the long processing times needed for previous digital images.

This technology continued to grow over the decades, and soon combined with mobile phone technology. In 1997, the first image was taken using a camera phone. Cell phone manufacturers quickly launched new phone models that included cameras, and most of today’s devices include a digital camera. The 2004 emergence of Flickr, a popular photo-sharing site, as well as the launch of Facebook that same year, provided new ways for people to share and connect via digital photographs.

The digital camera revolution transformed how we conduct business and stay in touch with family and friends. The use of webcams and videoconferencing technology has enabled many to conduct business across geographic boundaries and to telecommute from home to their job. This has changed the face of the traditional office environment for all industries and parts of the marketplace, such as government agencies, corporations, small businesses, and service organizations. And in many ways, digital cameras have changed our everyday lives. The use of digital cameras has revolutionized many medical procedures and how we interact with our health-care providers. Digital cameras have enabled us to see space beyond the earth and moon. Consumer products can be test marketed and brought into consumers lives’ virtually. Parents have the capability to monitor their babies sleeping in cribs. Doorbell cameras have increased our sense of security in our homes. The cameras we have at our fingertips today have far surpassed the imaginations of the early inventors of this technology.

Games and Gaming Devices

Computerized games for entertainment existed long before today’s gaming consoles. When computers were starting to gain a foothold in the American household, their primary use was for entertainment. The initial concept of computerized games was centered on taking existing, often traditional games, such as checkers and chess, and moving those to the computerized platform.

The first video game was developed by an American physicist. William Higinbotham developed the game Tennis for Two in 1958 using an analog computer with an oscilloscope display. This simple invention laid the groundwork for one of the most profitable industries in the world. It is estimated that over 60 percent of U.S. households today have members who regularly play video games. Technology progressed to the first gaming console, 1967’s Brown Box, and then to 1972’s Atari, with its popular game, Pong. In 1978, Space Invaders hit the arcade market—a game venue marketed heavily to bowling alleys and retail locations. The arcade craze became a huge commercial success for the game makers as well as the businesses that purchased the games (Figure 1.14). Motivated by getting to the top of the scoring list, players were readily putting their quarters into the machines. Over the next decade, nearly two dozen companies developed arcade games, including the well-known game Pac-Man, which was introduced to the U.S. market in 1981.

Figure 1.14 The arcade of the 1980s changed how teenagers spent their time and their money. (credit: “the Luna City Arcade” by Blake Patterson/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

The decades that followed saw the leap from Intellivision to the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Nintendo’s handheld Game Boy device. At the end of the 1980s, Sega emerged as a major competitor to Nintendo. Their gaming system had better graphics and new creative energy, bringing on what would become some of the most popular games of our time, like Sonic the Hedgehog. As new game concepts emerged, controversy over violence in games and other questionable content prompted a government response and the creation of an industry rating system for games.

As the trajectory of advances in games and consoles continues, today it seems that a new and improved system hits the market every year. Many people also have games downloaded on their phones. And the concept of e-sports has reached colleges and universities, both as an academic program and as an NCAA-recognized collegiate sport. The future of video games seems to be moving in the direction of artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual reality simulations, with both Apple and Google making company acquisitions in that arena.

Mobile technology, digital imaging, and gaming capabilities today are inherently intertwined. Often, all three coexist on a single device. As just one example, consider how we use Google Photos on our phones to share family memories. Extending this capability, in a video game app on a mobile phone, a user can create a character using their photo and then have this virtual character interact with other players across the world. In the business world, many of us now use Zoom or other videoconferencing tools to connect with colleagues remotely. Outside of work, users of gaming consoles can chat with other players through their phones or through the console. Many games today are designed from the start to be played on multiple platforms. Microsoft is even offering mobile phone plans for customers. Each technology has changed our lives, but together their impact has been remarkable.

AR/VR Simulations

Using digital objects in a real-life picture or scene is called augmented reality (AR). For example, think about the overlays or filters you can put on photos in some social media apps. A mostly simulated, 3-D environment in which the user can move about visually and interact is called virtual reality (VR). Both technologies have applications in many industries. For example, if you want to try a new style of glasses, you could use AR to see what those glasses might look like on your face. You might use a VR simulation to offer your insight on a yet-to-be-developed product concept. Other applications could be in manufacturing, real estate, medicine, and education.

One recent example of the use of VR was seen when the NBA had to cancel games because of the COVID pandemic. To keep fans engaged, the league offered VR passes that enabled ticket holders to attend past games in a VR environment and nearly be courtside for the action. The only equipment they needed was the app and a VR headset. (VR headsets are widely available for purchase, typically for under $200.) This was a unique use of the technology to keep the audience’s attention during a difficult time.

Robotics and Automation

Robotics should be distinguished from automation, which refers to using computers or machines to do tasks that could be completed by a person. Automation can be quite technical, using computerized technology, or it can be a mechanical process using machines. For example, processing retail transactions, which was once handled by people using pen and paper, is now well automated through the use of a computer.

On the other hand, robotics is centered on robotic machines, which are now used in nearly every industry. These machines can automate some tasks that were previously performed by humans, but they can also be programmed to perform tasks that no human could perform. Consider some medical procedures that can now be carried out using robotic machines but that simply were not possible in the past, such as certain procedures on the brain. The use of robots in the workplace can reduce errors, increase safety, enhance productivity, and reduce time spent on routine tasks for employees.

Robotics has been a part of the manufacturing environment for some time. But today we see increasingly unique applications of robotics in the workplace. For example, the University of California is testing a robotic pharmacist, which will perform many of the functions of a traditional pharmacist, such as choosing the correct prescription and dosage. Robots are also being used to keep areas clean and sanitized; in some cases, robots can be used to clean up spills that might otherwise be hazardous to humans. Giant Food Stores is piloting a program that uses robot assistants throughout the store to monitor for spills and potential hazards in the aisle. Drones (a kind of robot) are used in some military applications, and the use of drones is being tested for package delivery. Finally, robots can be used to find and rescue victims in disaster situations where it might be too dangerous to send in typical emergency personnel.

Nanotechnology

Another advancement in technology is nanotechnology, which entails changing individual molecules to produce different properties or attributes. It can be applied to a wide variety of fields, including engineering and chemistry, as well as to medicine and consumer products. The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative was launched in 2000 to manage research and development in the field, and the first academic program centered on nanotechnology emerged by 2004. At that time, the technology was being heavily tested with consumer products. Nanotechnology has been used to make golf balls go straighter, make car bumpers more dent resistant, and give cosmetics and lotions deep skin-penetrating properties. With nanotechnology, drug delivery to patients can be better targeted and controlled. Filters made using nanotechnology have been used to filter drinking water sources in countries such as India. In agriculture, nanotechnology has improved yields with the use of soil analysis and targeted fertilizer applications. Nanotechnology can also be used to better combat air and water pollution through increased filtration efforts. Research into nanotechnology possibilities continues to expand.

Wearables

A wearable is a device that uses computing technology to collect and receive data via the internet. You may already be using a wearable technology device—for example, a smartwatch. Using similar technology to a smartwatch, Motiv has developed a ring that can track fitness goals and sleep cycles. As Figure 1.17 shows, you would never know it was a smart ring from its outward appearance. Other wearables include heart rate monitors and a medical alert device. These devices can be worn, incorporated into apparel, or even embedded into the skin. The military is even considering using embedded wearables to keep track of troops. Some cutting-edge wearables are centered in the medical industry; for example, a wearable has been developed that can detect early signs of breast cancer.

Figure 1.17 The fitness tracking ring is a new take on the fitness tracker. It can track activity and sleep cycles and send the information to your smartphone. (credit: “Left hand with Oura smart ring on finger, right hand shows phone with the Oura app´s energy and activity statistics” by Marco Verch/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

Some professional athletes use wearables to improve performance and track incidences of concussions. Wearables for children are becoming more popular for location tracking. The possibilities are endless. It is estimated that there are nearly a billion wearable devices active globally, over 50 percent of which are smartwatches. And about a quarter of wearable users wear the device while sleeping. Revenues in the industry are nearly $10 billion in the United States. Wearables are now also being used for ticketing purposes at concerts and amusement parks.

Smart Spaces

An internet-connected space—office, home, car, or building that incorporates technologies that can be controlled from the internet—is called a smart space. In homes, we see products centered on convenience, security, and comfort. The goal is to improve your life without interfering and creating a nuisance. For example, you can have a thermostat that enables you to control the temperature in your home from your phone, even when you are not at home. You can have a device that switches on the lights or the TV when you verbally ask it to do so, or home security lights that come on for your safety as you approach the front door. With products such as Google Home Smart, shown in Figure 1.18—a virtual assistant that is connected to the internet—all members of the family can control many devices. If you have your devices synced to one another, you can even have Google Home tell you your calendar appointments for the day or set reminders and alarms.

Figure 1.18 Devices such as Google Home Smart are creating "smart" spaces that are able to be managed from remote locations, such as the workplace. (credit: “Home Automation22” by mikemacmarketing/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0)

Similar technologies can be employed in the workplace. Smart offices/buildings can be equipped with many of the same technologies—a good strategy for managing utility costs and adding convenience for employees. Smart offices can make employees more productive by giving them more time to focus on creative and strategic tasks as opposed to more routine and mundane responsibilities such as sending invoices or even turning on the office lights. Job satisfaction can be increased by giving employees more control over their workspaces.

A unique application of the technology is its use in schools, which is being piloted in Texas with a partnership between two private companies and Microsoft. They are equipping schools with a variety of connected devices centered on security and communication in an emergency. These devices can communicate internally during an emergency, such as a fire, and can also communicate externally with first responders and police.

There are some challenges in the smart space industry. Many concerns arise about the invasive nature of some of the connected devices, including concerns about recording personal information, governmental monitoring of the information, and the usage/security of the data collected. Another challenge is educating consumers on how to use the equipment and its capabilities. Finally, the price point is high for some of these devices because many are still rather new to the market.

AI and Machine Learning

Using computers, robots, and machines to mimic the human brain is called artificial intelligence (AI). From problem solving to perception to learning, the goal is to reduce errors and minimize human biases and emotions in the process. In machine learning, a subset of AI, an AI device learns on its own, gathering data and using that data to continuously refine and “learn” about the system and its usage. Speech and image recognition are two examples of AI. Another example is a robot vacuum cleaner, where the AI system uses a computer and the data it collects to know where to clean in the home. Figure 1.19 shows the popular Roomba vacuum. Still another example is seen when websites show recommended products for you based on your prior searches. The device learns your likes and dislikes based on your clicks and other related data.

Figure 1.19 AI in the home can take over inconvenient or repetitive tasks such as cleaning. (credit: “iRobot Roomba 870” by Kārlis Dambrāns/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

In a more large-scale use of AI, for quite some time airlines have made use of autopilot features, including robotics, image recognition, and GPS, to fly and navigate an aircraft. In the retail industry, the use of AI is expected to grow about 30 percent by 2028, a strong increase, to include applications centered on personalizing the customer experience as well as managing distribution and inventories. Today, AI technology has evolved to create stories in the style of famous writers or even write detailed research papers when prompted.