Skip to ContentGo to accessibility pageKeyboard shortcuts menu
OpenStax Logo
University Physics Volume 1

3.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

University Physics Volume 13.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

Menu
Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. Mechanics
    1. 1 Units and Measurement
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 The Scope and Scale of Physics
      3. 1.2 Units and Standards
      4. 1.3 Unit Conversion
      5. 1.4 Dimensional Analysis
      6. 1.5 Estimates and Fermi Calculations
      7. 1.6 Significant Figures
      8. 1.7 Solving Problems in Physics
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    2. 2 Vectors
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 Scalars and Vectors
      3. 2.2 Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector
      4. 2.3 Algebra of Vectors
      5. 2.4 Products of Vectors
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    3. 3 Motion Along a Straight Line
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity
      3. 3.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
      4. 3.3 Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
      5. 3.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration
      6. 3.5 Free Fall
      7. 3.6 Finding Velocity and Displacement from Acceleration
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    4. 4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 Displacement and Velocity Vectors
      3. 4.2 Acceleration Vector
      4. 4.3 Projectile Motion
      5. 4.4 Uniform Circular Motion
      6. 4.5 Relative Motion in One and Two Dimensions
      7. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    5. 5 Newton's Laws of Motion
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 Forces
      3. 5.2 Newton's First Law
      4. 5.3 Newton's Second Law
      5. 5.4 Mass and Weight
      6. 5.5 Newton’s Third Law
      7. 5.6 Common Forces
      8. 5.7 Drawing Free-Body Diagrams
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    6. 6 Applications of Newton's Laws
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws
      3. 6.2 Friction
      4. 6.3 Centripetal Force
      5. 6.4 Drag Force and Terminal Speed
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    7. 7 Work and Kinetic Energy
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 Work
      3. 7.2 Kinetic Energy
      4. 7.3 Work-Energy Theorem
      5. 7.4 Power
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    8. 8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 Potential Energy of a System
      3. 8.2 Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
      4. 8.3 Conservation of Energy
      5. 8.4 Potential Energy Diagrams and Stability
      6. 8.5 Sources of Energy
      7. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
    9. 9 Linear Momentum and Collisions
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 Linear Momentum
      3. 9.2 Impulse and Collisions
      4. 9.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum
      5. 9.4 Types of Collisions
      6. 9.5 Collisions in Multiple Dimensions
      7. 9.6 Center of Mass
      8. 9.7 Rocket Propulsion
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    10. 10 Fixed-Axis Rotation
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 Rotational Variables
      3. 10.2 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration
      4. 10.3 Relating Angular and Translational Quantities
      5. 10.4 Moment of Inertia and Rotational Kinetic Energy
      6. 10.5 Calculating Moments of Inertia
      7. 10.6 Torque
      8. 10.7 Newton’s Second Law for Rotation
      9. 10.8 Work and Power for Rotational Motion
      10. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    11. 11 Angular Momentum
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 Rolling Motion
      3. 11.2 Angular Momentum
      4. 11.3 Conservation of Angular Momentum
      5. 11.4 Precession of a Gyroscope
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    12. 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 Conditions for Static Equilibrium
      3. 12.2 Examples of Static Equilibrium
      4. 12.3 Stress, Strain, and Elastic Modulus
      5. 12.4 Elasticity and Plasticity
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    13. 13 Gravitation
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
      3. 13.2 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface
      4. 13.3 Gravitational Potential Energy and Total Energy
      5. 13.4 Satellite Orbits and Energy
      6. 13.5 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
      7. 13.6 Tidal Forces
      8. 13.7 Einstein's Theory of Gravity
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    14. 14 Fluid Mechanics
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 Fluids, Density, and Pressure
      3. 14.2 Measuring Pressure
      4. 14.3 Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics
      5. 14.4 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
      6. 14.5 Fluid Dynamics
      7. 14.6 Bernoulli’s Equation
      8. 14.7 Viscosity and Turbulence
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
  3. Waves and Acoustics
    1. 15 Oscillations
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
      3. 15.2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
      4. 15.3 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion and Circular Motion
      5. 15.4 Pendulums
      6. 15.5 Damped Oscillations
      7. 15.6 Forced Oscillations
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    2. 16 Waves
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 Traveling Waves
      3. 16.2 Mathematics of Waves
      4. 16.3 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
      5. 16.4 Energy and Power of a Wave
      6. 16.5 Interference of Waves
      7. 16.6 Standing Waves and Resonance
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    3. 17 Sound
      1. Introduction
      2. 17.1 Sound Waves
      3. 17.2 Speed of Sound
      4. 17.3 Sound Intensity
      5. 17.4 Normal Modes of a Standing Sound Wave
      6. 17.5 Sources of Musical Sound
      7. 17.6 Beats
      8. 17.7 The Doppler Effect
      9. 17.8 Shock Waves
      10. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
  4. A | Units
  5. B | Conversion Factors
  6. C | Fundamental Constants
  7. D | Astronomical Data
  8. E | Mathematical Formulas
  9. F | Chemistry
  10. G | The Greek Alphabet
  11. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
    7. Chapter 7
    8. Chapter 8
    9. Chapter 9
    10. Chapter 10
    11. Chapter 11
    12. Chapter 12
    13. Chapter 13
    14. Chapter 14
    15. Chapter 15
    16. Chapter 16
    17. Chapter 17
  12. Index

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
  • Describe the difference between velocity and speed.
  • Calculate the instantaneous velocity given the mathematical equation for the velocity.
  • Calculate the speed given the instantaneous velocity.

We have now seen how to calculate the average velocity between two positions. However, since objects in the real world move continuously through space and time, we would like to find the velocity of an object at any single point. We can find the velocity of the object anywhere along its path by using some fundamental principles of calculus. This section gives us better insight into the physics of motion and will be useful in later chapters.

Instantaneous Velocity

The quantity that tells us how fast an object is moving anywhere along its path is the instantaneous velocity, usually called simply velocity. It is the average velocity between two points on the path in the limit that the time (and therefore the displacement) between the two events approaches zero. To illustrate this idea mathematically, we need to express position x as a continuous function of t denoted by x(t). The expression for the average velocity between two points using this notation is v=x(t2)x(t1)t2t1v=x(t2)x(t1)t2t1. To find the instantaneous velocity at any position, we let t1=tt1=t and t2=t+Δtt2=t+Δt. After inserting these expressions into the equation for the average velocity and taking the limit as Δt0Δt0, we find the expression for the instantaneous velocity:

v(t)=limΔt0x(t+Δt)x(t)Δt=dx(t)dt.v(t)=limΔt0x(t+Δt)x(t)Δt=dx(t)dt.

Instantaneous Velocity

The instantaneous velocity of an object is the limit of the average velocity as the elapsed time approaches zero, or the derivative of x with respect to t:

v(t)=ddtx(t).v(t)=ddtx(t).
3.4

Like average velocity, instantaneous velocity is a vector with dimension of length per time. The instantaneous velocity at a specific time point t0t0 is the rate of change of the position function, which is the slope of the position function x(t)x(t) at t0t0. Figure 3.6 shows how the average velocity v=ΔxΔtv=ΔxΔt between two times approaches the instantaneous velocity at t0.t0. The instantaneous velocity is shown at time t0t0, which happens to be at the maximum of the position function. The slope of the position graph is zero at this point, and thus the instantaneous velocity is zero. At other times, t1,t2t1,t2, and so on, the instantaneous velocity is not zero because the slope of the position graph would be positive or negative. If the position function had a minimum, the slope of the position graph would also be zero, giving an instantaneous velocity of zero there as well. Thus, the zeros of the velocity function give the minimum and maximum of the position function.

Graph shows position plotted versus time. Position increases from t1 to t2 and reaches maximum at t0. It decreases to at and continues to decrease at t4. The slope of the tangent line at t0 is indicated as the instantaneous velocity.
Figure 3.6 In a graph of position versus time, the instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent line at a given point. The average velocities v=ΔxΔt=xfxitftiv=ΔxΔt=xfxitfti between times Δt=t6t1,Δt=t5t2,andΔt=t4t3Δt=t6t1,Δt=t5t2,andΔt=t4t3 are shown. When Δt0Δt0, the average velocity approaches the instantaneous velocity at t=t0t=t0.

Example 3.2

Finding Velocity from a Position-Versus-Time Graph

Given the position-versus-time graph of Figure 3.7, find the velocity-versus-time graph.
Graph shows position in kilometers plotted as a function of time at minutes. It starts at the origin, reaches 0.5 kilometers at 0.5 minutes, remains constant between 0.5 and 0.9 minutes, and decreases to 0 at 2.0 minutes.
Figure 3.7 The object starts out in the positive direction, stops for a short time, and then reverses direction, heading back toward the origin. Notice that the object comes to rest instantaneously, which would require an infinite force. Thus, the graph is an approximation of motion in the real world. (The concept of force is discussed in Newton’s Laws of Motion.)

Strategy

The graph contains three straight lines during three time intervals. We find the velocity during each time interval by taking the slope of the line using the grid.

Solution

Time interval 0 s to 0.5 s: v=ΔxΔt=0.5m0.0m0.5s0.0s=1.0m/sv=ΔxΔt=0.5m0.0m0.5s0.0s=1.0m/s

Time interval 0.5 s to 1.0 s: v=ΔxΔt=0.5m0.5m1.0s0.5s=0.0m/sv=ΔxΔt=0.5m0.5m1.0s0.5s=0.0m/s

Time interval 1.0 s to 2.0 s: v=ΔxΔt=0.0m0.5m2.0s1.0s=−0.5m/sv=ΔxΔt=0.0m0.5m2.0s1.0s=−0.5m/s

The graph of these values of velocity versus time is shown in Figure 3.8.

Graph shows velocity in meters per second plotted as a function of time at seconds. The velocity is 1 meter per second between 0 and 0.5 seconds, zero between 0.5 and 1.0 seconds, and -0.5 between 1.0 and 2.0 seconds.
Figure 3.8 The velocity is positive for the first part of the trip, zero when the object is stopped, and negative when the object reverses direction.

Significance

During the time interval between 0 s and 0.5 s, the object’s position is moving away from the origin and the position-versus-time curve has a positive slope. At any point along the curve during this time interval, we can find the instantaneous velocity by taking its slope, which is +1 m/s, as shown in Figure 3.8. In the subsequent time interval, between 0.5 s and 1.0 s, the position doesn’t change and we see the slope is zero. From 1.0 s to 2.0 s, the object is moving back toward the origin and the slope is −0.5 m/s. The object has reversed direction and has a negative velocity.

Speed

In everyday language, most people use the terms speed and velocity interchangeably. In physics, however, they do not have the same meaning and are distinct concepts. One major difference is that speed has no direction; that is, speed is a scalar.

We can calculate the average speed by finding the total distance traveled divided by the elapsed time:

Average speed=s=Total distanceElapsed time.Average speed=s=Total distanceElapsed time.
3.5

Average speed is not necessarily the same as the magnitude of the average velocity, which is found by dividing the magnitude of the total displacement by the elapsed time. For example, if a trip starts and ends at the same location, the total displacement is zero, and therefore the average velocity is zero. The average speed, however, is not zero, because the total distance traveled is greater than zero. If we take a road trip of 300 km and need to be at our destination at a certain time, then we would be interested in our average speed.

However, we can calculate the instantaneous speed from the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity:

Instantaneous speed=|v(t)|.Instantaneous speed=|v(t)|.
3.6

If a particle is moving along the x-axis at +7.0 m/s and another particle is moving along the same axis at −7.0 m/s, they have different velocities, but both have the same speed of 7.0 m/s. Some typical speeds are shown in the following table.

Speed m/s mi/h
Continental drift 10−710−7 2×10−72×10−7
Brisk walk 1.7 3.9
Cyclist 4.4 10
Sprint runner 12.2 27
Rural speed limit 24.6 56
Official land speed record 341.1 763
Speed of sound at sea level 343 768
Space shuttle on reentry 7800 17,500
Escape velocity of Earth* 11,200 25,000
Orbital speed of Earth around the Sun 29,783 66,623
Speed of light in a vacuum 299,792,458 670,616,629
Table 3.1 Speeds of Various Objects *Escape velocity is the velocity at which an object must be launched so that it overcomes Earth’s gravity and is not pulled back toward Earth.

Calculating Instantaneous Velocity

When calculating instantaneous velocity, we need to specify the explicit form of the position function x(t)x(t). If each term in the x(t)x(t) equation has the form of AtnAtn where AA is a constant and nn is an integer, this can be differentiated using the power rule to be:

d(Atn)dt=Antn1.d(Atn)dt=Antn1.
3.7

Note that if there are additional terms added together, this power rule of differentiation can be done multiple times and the solution is the sum of those terms. The following example illustrates the use of Equation 3.7.

Example 3.3

Instantaneous Velocity Versus Average Velocity

The position of a particle is given by x(t)=(3.0m/s)t+(0.5m/s3)t3x(t)=(3.0m/s)t+(0.5m/s3)t3.
  1. Using Equation 3.4 and Equation 3.7, find the instantaneous velocity at t=2.0t=2.0 s.
  2. Calculate the average velocity between 1.0 s and 3.0 s.

Strategy

Equation 3.4 gives the instantaneous velocity of the particle as the derivative of the position function. Looking at the form of the position function given, we see that it is a polynomial in t. Therefore, we can use Equation 3.7, the power rule from calculus, to find the solution. We use Equation 3.6 to calculate the average velocity of the particle.

Solution

  1. v(t)=dx(t)dt=(3.0m/s)+(1.5m/s3)t2v(t)=dx(t)dt=(3.0m/s)+(1.5m/s3)t2.
    Substituting t = 2.0 s into this equation gives v(2.0s)=(3.0m/s)+(1.5m/s3)(2.0 s)2v(2.0s)=(3.0m/s)+(1.5m/s3)(2.0 s)2.
  2. To determine the average velocity of the particle between 1.0 s and 3.0 s, we calculate the values of x(1.0 s) and x(3.0 s):
    x(1.0s)=[(3.0 m/s)(1.0 s)+(0.5m/s3)(1.0 s)3]=3.5mx(1.0s)=[(3.0 m/s)(1.0 s)+(0.5m/s3)(1.0 s)3]=3.5m
    x(3.0s)=[(3.0 m/s)(3.0 s)+(0.5m/s3)(3.0 s)3]=22.5mx(3.0s)=[(3.0 m/s)(3.0 s)+(0.5m/s3)(3.0 s)3]=22.5m
    Then the average velocity is
    v=x(3.0s)x(1.0s)t(3.0s)t(1.0s)=(22.53.5)m(3.01.0)s=9.5m/s.v=x(3.0s)x(1.0s)t(3.0s)t(1.0s)=(22.53.5)m(3.01.0)s=9.5m/s.

Significance

In the limit that the time interval used to calculate vv goes to zero, the value obtained for vv converges to the value of v.

Example 3.4

Instantaneous Velocity Versus Speed

Consider the motion of a particle in which the position is x(t)=(3.0m/s)t(3m/s2)t2x(t)=(3.0m/s)t(3m/s2)t2.
  1. What is the instantaneous velocity at t = 0.25 s, t = 0.50 s, and t = 1.0 s?
  2. What is the speed of the particle at these times?

Strategy

The instantaneous velocity is the derivative of the position function and the speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. We use Equation 3.4 and Equation 3.7 to solve for instantaneous velocity.

Solution

  1. v(t)=dx(t)dt=(3.0m/s6.0m/s2t),v(0.25s)=1.50m/s,v(t)=dx(t)dt=(3.0m/s6.0m/s2t),v(0.25s)=1.50m/s,
    v(0.5s)=0m/s,v(1.0s)=−3.0m/sv(0.5s)=0m/s,v(1.0s)=−3.0m/s
  2. Speed=|v(t)|=1.50m/s,0.0m/s,and3.0m/sSpeed=|v(t)|=1.50m/s,0.0m/s,and3.0m/s

Significance

The velocity of the particle gives us direction information, indicating the particle is moving to the left (west) or right (east). The speed gives the magnitude of the velocity. By graphing the position, velocity, and speed as functions of time, we can understand these concepts visually Figure 3.9. In (a), the graph shows the particle moving in the positive direction until t = 0.5 s, when it reverses direction. The reversal of direction can also be seen in (b) at 0.5 s where the velocity is zero and then turns negative. At 1.0 s it is back at the origin where it started. The particle’s velocity at 1.0 s in (b) is negative, because it is traveling in the negative direction. But in (c), however, its speed is positive and remains positive throughout the travel time. We can also interpret velocity as the slope of the position-versus-time graph. The slope of x(t) is decreasing toward zero, becoming zero at 0.5 s and increasingly negative thereafter. This analysis of comparing the graphs of position, velocity, and speed helps catch errors in calculations. The graphs must be consistent with each other and help interpret the calculations.
Graph A shows position in meters plotted versus time in seconds. It starts at the origin, reaches maximum at 0.5 seconds, and then start to decrease crossing x axis at 1 second. Graph B shows velocity in meters per second plotted as a function of time at seconds. Velocity linearly decreases from the left to the right. Graph C shows absolute velocity in meters per second plotted as a function of time at seconds. Graph has a V-leeter shape. Velocity decreases till 0.5 seconds; then it starts to increase.
Figure 3.9 (a) Position: x(t) versus time. (b) Velocity: v(t) versus time. The slope of the position graph is the velocity. A rough comparison of the slopes of the tangent lines in (a) at 0.25 s, 0.5 s, and 1.0 s with the values for velocity at the corresponding times indicates they are the same values. (c) Speed: |v(t)||v(t)| versus time. Speed is always a positive number.

Check Your Understanding 3.2

The position of an object as a function of time is x(t)=(3m/s2)t2x(t)=(3m/s2)t2. (a) What is the velocity of the object as a function of time? (b) Is the velocity ever positive? (c) What are the velocity and speed at t = 1.0 s?

Order a print copy

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

Citation/Attribution

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Attribution information
  • If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a print format, then you must include on every physical page the following attribution:
    Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-1/pages/1-introduction
  • If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a digital format, then you must include on every digital page view the following attribution:
    Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-1/pages/1-introduction
Citation information

© Jul 21, 2023 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.