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University Physics Volume 1

16.3 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

University Physics Volume 116.3 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. Mechanics
    1. 1 Units and Measurement
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 The Scope and Scale of Physics
      3. 1.2 Units and Standards
      4. 1.3 Unit Conversion
      5. 1.4 Dimensional Analysis
      6. 1.5 Estimates and Fermi Calculations
      7. 1.6 Significant Figures
      8. 1.7 Solving Problems in Physics
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    2. 2 Vectors
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 Scalars and Vectors
      3. 2.2 Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector
      4. 2.3 Algebra of Vectors
      5. 2.4 Products of Vectors
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    3. 3 Motion Along a Straight Line
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity
      3. 3.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
      4. 3.3 Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
      5. 3.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration
      6. 3.5 Free Fall
      7. 3.6 Finding Velocity and Displacement from Acceleration
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    4. 4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 Displacement and Velocity Vectors
      3. 4.2 Acceleration Vector
      4. 4.3 Projectile Motion
      5. 4.4 Uniform Circular Motion
      6. 4.5 Relative Motion in One and Two Dimensions
      7. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    5. 5 Newton's Laws of Motion
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 Forces
      3. 5.2 Newton's First Law
      4. 5.3 Newton's Second Law
      5. 5.4 Mass and Weight
      6. 5.5 Newton’s Third Law
      7. 5.6 Common Forces
      8. 5.7 Drawing Free-Body Diagrams
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    6. 6 Applications of Newton's Laws
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws
      3. 6.2 Friction
      4. 6.3 Centripetal Force
      5. 6.4 Drag Force and Terminal Speed
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    7. 7 Work and Kinetic Energy
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 Work
      3. 7.2 Kinetic Energy
      4. 7.3 Work-Energy Theorem
      5. 7.4 Power
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    8. 8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 Potential Energy of a System
      3. 8.2 Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
      4. 8.3 Conservation of Energy
      5. 8.4 Potential Energy Diagrams and Stability
      6. 8.5 Sources of Energy
      7. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
    9. 9 Linear Momentum and Collisions
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 Linear Momentum
      3. 9.2 Impulse and Collisions
      4. 9.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum
      5. 9.4 Types of Collisions
      6. 9.5 Collisions in Multiple Dimensions
      7. 9.6 Center of Mass
      8. 9.7 Rocket Propulsion
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    10. 10 Fixed-Axis Rotation
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 Rotational Variables
      3. 10.2 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration
      4. 10.3 Relating Angular and Translational Quantities
      5. 10.4 Moment of Inertia and Rotational Kinetic Energy
      6. 10.5 Calculating Moments of Inertia
      7. 10.6 Torque
      8. 10.7 Newton’s Second Law for Rotation
      9. 10.8 Work and Power for Rotational Motion
      10. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    11. 11 Angular Momentum
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 Rolling Motion
      3. 11.2 Angular Momentum
      4. 11.3 Conservation of Angular Momentum
      5. 11.4 Precession of a Gyroscope
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    12. 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 Conditions for Static Equilibrium
      3. 12.2 Examples of Static Equilibrium
      4. 12.3 Stress, Strain, and Elastic Modulus
      5. 12.4 Elasticity and Plasticity
      6. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    13. 13 Gravitation
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
      3. 13.2 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface
      4. 13.3 Gravitational Potential Energy and Total Energy
      5. 13.4 Satellite Orbits and Energy
      6. 13.5 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
      7. 13.6 Tidal Forces
      8. 13.7 Einstein's Theory of Gravity
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    14. 14 Fluid Mechanics
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 Fluids, Density, and Pressure
      3. 14.2 Measuring Pressure
      4. 14.3 Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics
      5. 14.4 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
      6. 14.5 Fluid Dynamics
      7. 14.6 Bernoulli’s Equation
      8. 14.7 Viscosity and Turbulence
      9. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
  3. Waves and Acoustics
    1. 15 Oscillations
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
      3. 15.2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
      4. 15.3 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion and Circular Motion
      5. 15.4 Pendulums
      6. 15.5 Damped Oscillations
      7. 15.6 Forced Oscillations
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    2. 16 Waves
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 Traveling Waves
      3. 16.2 Mathematics of Waves
      4. 16.3 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
      5. 16.4 Energy and Power of a Wave
      6. 16.5 Interference of Waves
      7. 16.6 Standing Waves and Resonance
      8. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
    3. 17 Sound
      1. Introduction
      2. 17.1 Sound Waves
      3. 17.2 Speed of Sound
      4. 17.3 Sound Intensity
      5. 17.4 Normal Modes of a Standing Sound Wave
      6. 17.5 Sources of Musical Sound
      7. 17.6 Beats
      8. 17.7 The Doppler Effect
      9. 17.8 Shock Waves
      10. Chapter Review
        1. Key Terms
        2. Key Equations
        3. Summary
        4. Conceptual Questions
        5. Problems
        6. Additional Problems
        7. Challenge Problems
  4. A | Units
  5. B | Conversion Factors
  6. C | Fundamental Constants
  7. D | Astronomical Data
  8. E | Mathematical Formulas
  9. F | Chemistry
  10. G | The Greek Alphabet
  11. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
    7. Chapter 7
    8. Chapter 8
    9. Chapter 9
    10. Chapter 10
    11. Chapter 11
    12. Chapter 12
    13. Chapter 13
    14. Chapter 14
    15. Chapter 15
    16. Chapter 16
    17. Chapter 17
  12. Index

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Determine the factors that affect the speed of a wave on a string
  • Write a mathematical expression for the speed of a wave on a string and generalize these concepts for other media

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar, the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The speed of the waves on the strings, and the wavelength, determine the frequency of the sound produced. The strings on a guitar have different thickness but may be made of similar material. They have different linear densities, where the linear density is defined as the mass per length,

μ=mass of stringlength of string=ml.μ=mass of stringlength of string=ml.
16.7

In this chapter, we consider only strings with a constant linear density. If the linear density is constant, then the mass (Δm)(Δm) of a small length of string (Δx)(Δx) is Δm=μΔx.Δm=μΔx. For example, if the string has a length of 2.00 m and a mass of 0.06 kg, then the linear density is μ=0.06kg2.00m=0.03kgm.μ=0.06kg2.00m=0.03kgm. If a 1.00-mm section is cut from the string, the mass of the 1.00-mm length is Δm=μΔx=(0.03kgm)0.001m=3.00×10−5kg.Δm=μΔx=(0.03kgm)0.001m=3.00×10−5kg. The guitar also has a method to change the tension of the strings. The tension of the strings is adjusted by turning spindles, called the tuning pegs, around which the strings are wrapped. For the guitar, the linear density of the string and the tension in the string determine the speed of the waves in the string and the frequency of the sound produced is proportional to the wave speed.

Wave Speed on a String under Tension

To see how the speed of a wave on a string depends on the tension and the linear density, consider a pulse sent down a taut string (Figure 16.13). When the taut string is at rest at the equilibrium position, the tension in the string FTFT is constant. Consider a small element of the string with a mass equal to Δm=μΔx.Δm=μΔx. The mass element is at rest and in equilibrium and the force of tension of either side of the mass element is equal and opposite.

Figure shows a section of a string with one portion highlighted. The length of the highlighted portion is labeled delta x. Two arrows from this portion point in opposite directions along the length of the string. These are labeled F subscript T. The highlighted portion is labeled delta m equal to mu delta x.
Figure 16.13 Mass element of a string kept taut with a tension FTFT. The mass element is in static equilibrium, and the force of tension acting on either side of the mass element is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

If you pluck a string under tension, a transverse wave moves in the positive x-direction, as shown in Figure 16.14. The mass element is small but is enlarged in the figure to make it visible. The small mass element oscillates perpendicular to the wave motion as a result of the restoring force provided by the string and does not move in the x-direction. The tension FTFT in the string, which acts in the positive and negative x-direction, is approximately constant and is independent of position and time.

Figure shows a pulse wave. Two arrows are shown along the upward slope of the wave, one pointing up and right, the other pointing down and left. These arrows, labeled F make angles theta 2 and theta 1 respectively with
Figure 16.14 A string under tension is plucked, causing a pulse to move along the string in the positive x-direction.

Assume that the inclination of the displaced string with respect to the horizontal axis is small. The net force on the element of the string, acting parallel to the string, is the sum of the tension in the string and the restoring force. The x-components of the force of tension cancel, so the net force is equal to the sum of the y-components of the force. The magnitude of the x-component of the force is equal to the horizontal force of tension of the string FTFT as shown in Figure 16.14. To obtain the y-components of the force, note that tanθ1=F1FTtanθ1=F1FT and tanθ2=F2FT.tanθ2=F2FT. The tanθtanθ is equal to the slope of a function at a point, which is equal to the partial derivative of y with respect to x at that point. Therefore, F1FTF1FT is equal to the negative slope of the string at x1x1 and F2FTF2FT is equal to the slope of the string at x2:x2:

F1FT=(yx)x1andF2FT=(yx)x2.F1FT=(yx)x1andF2FT=(yx)x2.

The net force on the small mass element can be written as

Fnet=F1+F2=FT[(yx)x2(yx)x1].Fnet=F1+F2=FT[(yx)x2(yx)x1].

Using Newton’s second law, the net force is equal to the mass times the acceleration. The linear density of the string μμ is the mass per length of the string, and the mass of the portion of the string is μΔxμΔx,

FT[(yx)x2(yx)x1]=Δma,FT[(yx)x2(yx)x1]=μΔx2yt2.FT[(yx)x2(yx)x1]=Δma,FT[(yx)x2(yx)x1]=μΔx2yt2.

Dividing by FTΔxFTΔx and taking the limit as ΔxΔx approaches zero,

[(yx)x2(yx)x1]Δx=μFT2yt2limΔx0[(yx)x2(yx)x1]Δx=μFT2yt22yx2=μFT2yt2.[(yx)x2(yx)x1]Δx=μFT2yt2limΔx0[(yx)x2(yx)x1]Δx=μFT2yt22yx2=μFT2yt2.

Recall that the linear wave equation is

2y(x,t)x2=1v22y(x,t)t2.2y(x,t)x2=1v22y(x,t)t2.

Therefore,

1v2=μFT.1v2=μFT.

Solving for v, we see that the speed of the wave on a string depends on the tension and the linear density.

Speed of a Wave on a String Under Tension

The speed of a pulse or wave on a string under tension can be found with the equation

|v|=FTμ|v|=FTμ
16.8

where FTFT is the tension in the string and μμ is the mass per length of the string.

Example 16.5

The Wave Speed of a Guitar Spring

On a six-string guitar, the high E string has a linear density of μHigh E=3.09×10−4kg/mμHigh E=3.09×10−4kg/m and the low E string has a linear density of μLow E=5.78×10−3kg/m.μLow E=5.78×10−3kg/m. (a) If the high E string is plucked, producing a wave in the string, what is the speed of the wave if the tension of the string is 56.40 N? (b) The linear density of the low E string is approximately 20 times greater than that of the high E string. For waves to travel through the low E string at the same wave speed as the high E, would the tension need to be larger or smaller than the high E string? What would be the approximate tension? (c) Calculate the tension of the low E string needed for the same wave speed.

Strategy

  1. The speed of the wave can be found from the linear density and the tension v=FTμ.v=FTμ.
  2. From the equation v=FTμ,v=FTμ, if the linear density is increased by a factor of almost 20, the tension would need to be increased by a factor of 20.
  3. Knowing the velocity and the linear density, the velocity equation can be solved for the force of tension FT=μv2.FT=μv2.

Solution

  1. Use the velocity equation to find the speed:
    v=FTμ=56.40N3.09×10−4kg/m=427.23m/s.v=FTμ=56.40N3.09×10−4kg/m=427.23m/s.
  2. The tension would need to be increased by a factor of approximately 20. The tension would be slightly less than 1128 N.
  3. Use the velocity equation to find the actual tension:
    FT=μv2=5.78×10−3kg/m(427.23m/s)2=1055.00N.FT=μv2=5.78×10−3kg/m(427.23m/s)2=1055.00N.
    This solution is within 7%7% of the approximation.

Significance

The standard notes of the six string (high E, B, G, D, A, low E) are tuned to vibrate at the fundamental frequencies (329.63 Hz, 246.94Hz, 196.00Hz, 146.83Hz, 110.00Hz, and 82.41Hz) when plucked. The frequencies depend on the speed of the waves on the string and the wavelength of the waves. The six strings have different linear densities and are “tuned” by changing the tensions in the strings. We will see in Interference of Waves that the wavelength depends on the length of the strings and the boundary conditions. To play notes other than the fundamental notes, the lengths of the strings are changed by pressing down on the strings.

Check Your Understanding 16.5

The wave speed of a wave on a string depends on the tension and the linear mass density. If the tension is doubled, what happens to the speed of the waves on the string?

Speed of Compression Waves in a Fluid

The speed of a wave on a string depends on the square root of the tension divided by the mass per length, the linear density. In general, the speed of a wave through a medium depends on the elastic property of the medium and the inertial property of the medium.

|v|=elastic propertyinertial property|v|=elastic propertyinertial property

The elastic property describes the tendency of the particles of the medium to return to their initial position when perturbed. The inertial property describes the tendency of the particle to resist changes in velocity.

The speed of a longitudinal wave through a liquid or gas depends on the density of the fluid and the bulk modulus of the fluid,

v=Βρ.v=Βρ.
16.9

Here the bulk modulus is defined as Β=ΔPΔVV0,Β=ΔPΔVV0, where ΔPΔP is the change in the pressure and the denominator is the ratio of the change in volume to the initial volume, and ρmVρmV is the mass per unit volume. For example, sound is a mechanical wave that travels through a fluid or a solid. The speed of sound in air with an atmospheric pressure of 1.013×105Pa1.013×105Pa and a temperature of 20°C20°C is vs343.00m/s.vs343.00m/s. Because the density depends on temperature, the speed of sound in air depends on the temperature of the air. This will be discussed in detail in Sound.

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