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Statistics

Key Terms

StatisticsKey Terms

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Sampling and Data
    1. Introduction
    2. 1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms
    3. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling
    4. 1.3 Frequency, Frequency Tables, and Levels of Measurement
    5. 1.4 Experimental Design and Ethics
    6. 1.5 Data Collection Experiment
    7. 1.6 Sampling Experiment
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. Bringing It Together: Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  3. 2 Descriptive Statistics
    1. Introduction
    2. 2.1 Stem-and-Leaf Graphs (Stemplots), Line Graphs, and Bar Graphs
    3. 2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Time Series Graphs
    4. 2.3 Measures of the Location of the Data
    5. 2.4 Box Plots
    6. 2.5 Measures of the Center of the Data
    7. 2.6 Skewness and the Mean, Median, and Mode
    8. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data
    9. 2.8 Descriptive Statistics
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. Bringing It Together: Homework
    16. References
    17. Solutions
  4. 3 Probability Topics
    1. Introduction
    2. 3.1 Terminology
    3. 3.2 Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events
    4. 3.3 Two Basic Rules of Probability
    5. 3.4 Contingency Tables
    6. 3.5 Tree and Venn Diagrams
    7. 3.6 Probability Topics
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Formula Review
    11. Practice
    12. Bringing It Together: Practice
    13. Homework
    14. Bringing It Together: Homework
    15. References
    16. Solutions
  5. 4 Discrete Random Variables
    1. Introduction
    2. 4.1 Probability Distribution Function (PDF) for a Discrete Random Variable
    3. 4.2 Mean or Expected Value and Standard Deviation
    4. 4.3 Binomial Distribution (Optional)
    5. 4.4 Geometric Distribution (Optional)
    6. 4.5 Hypergeometric Distribution (Optional)
    7. 4.6 Poisson Distribution (Optional)
    8. 4.7 Discrete Distribution (Playing Card Experiment)
    9. 4.8 Discrete Distribution (Lucky Dice Experiment)
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. References
    16. Solutions
  6. 5 Continuous Random Variables
    1. Introduction
    2. 5.1 Continuous Probability Functions
    3. 5.2 The Uniform Distribution
    4. 5.3 The Exponential Distribution (Optional)
    5. 5.4 Continuous Distribution
    6. Key Terms
    7. Chapter Review
    8. Formula Review
    9. Practice
    10. Homework
    11. References
    12. Solutions
  7. 6 The Normal Distribution
    1. Introduction
    2. 6.1 The Standard Normal Distribution
    3. 6.2 Using the Normal Distribution
    4. 6.3 Normal Distribution—Lap Times
    5. 6.4 Normal Distribution—Pinkie Length
    6. Key Terms
    7. Chapter Review
    8. Formula Review
    9. Practice
    10. Homework
    11. References
    12. Solutions
  8. 7 The Central Limit Theorem
    1. Introduction
    2. 7.1 The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means (Averages)
    3. 7.2 The Central Limit Theorem for Sums (Optional)
    4. 7.3 Using the Central Limit Theorem
    5. 7.4 Central Limit Theorem (Pocket Change)
    6. 7.5 Central Limit Theorem (Cookie Recipes)
    7. Key Terms
    8. Chapter Review
    9. Formula Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. References
    13. Solutions
  9. 8 Confidence Intervals
    1. Introduction
    2. 8.1 A Single Population Mean Using the Normal Distribution
    3. 8.2 A Single Population Mean Using the Student's t-Distribution
    4. 8.3 A Population Proportion
    5. 8.4 Confidence Interval (Home Costs)
    6. 8.5 Confidence Interval (Place of Birth)
    7. 8.6 Confidence Interval (Women's Heights)
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Formula Review
    11. Practice
    12. Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  10. 9 Hypothesis Testing with One Sample
    1. Introduction
    2. 9.1 Null and Alternative Hypotheses
    3. 9.2 Outcomes and the Type I and Type II Errors
    4. 9.3 Distribution Needed for Hypothesis Testing
    5. 9.4 Rare Events, the Sample, and the Decision and Conclusion
    6. 9.5 Additional Information and Full Hypothesis Test Examples
    7. 9.6 Hypothesis Testing of a Single Mean and Single Proportion
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Formula Review
    11. Practice
    12. Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  11. 10 Hypothesis Testing with Two Samples
    1. Introduction
    2. 10.1 Two Population Means with Unknown Standard Deviations
    3. 10.2 Two Population Means with Known Standard Deviations
    4. 10.3 Comparing Two Independent Population Proportions
    5. 10.4 Matched or Paired Samples (Optional)
    6. 10.5 Hypothesis Testing for Two Means and Two Proportions
    7. Key Terms
    8. Chapter Review
    9. Formula Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. Bringing It Together: Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  12. 11 The Chi-Square Distribution
    1. Introduction
    2. 11.1 Facts About the Chi-Square Distribution
    3. 11.2 Goodness-of-Fit Test
    4. 11.3 Test of Independence
    5. 11.4 Test for Homogeneity
    6. 11.5 Comparison of the Chi-Square Tests
    7. 11.6 Test of a Single Variance
    8. 11.7 Lab 1: Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
    9. 11.8 Lab 2: Chi-Square Test of Independence
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. Bringing It Together: Homework
    16. References
    17. Solutions
  13. 12 Linear Regression and Correlation
    1. Introduction
    2. 12.1 Linear Equations
    3. 12.2 The Regression Equation
    4. 12.3 Testing the Significance of the Correlation Coefficient (Optional)
    5. 12.4 Prediction (Optional)
    6. 12.5 Outliers
    7. 12.6 Regression (Distance from School) (Optional)
    8. 12.7 Regression (Textbook Cost) (Optional)
    9. 12.8 Regression (Fuel Efficiency) (Optional)
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. Bringing It Together: Homework
    16. References
    17. Solutions
  14. 13 F Distribution and One-way Anova
    1. Introduction
    2. 13.1 One-Way ANOVA
    3. 13.2 The F Distribution and the F Ratio
    4. 13.3 Facts About the F Distribution
    5. 13.4 Test of Two Variances
    6. 13.5 Lab: One-Way ANOVA
    7. Key Terms
    8. Chapter Review
    9. Formula Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. References
    13. Solutions
  15. A | Appendix A Review Exercises (Ch 3–13)
  16. B | Appendix B Practice Tests (1–4) and Final Exams
  17. C | Data Sets
  18. D | Group and Partner Projects
  19. E | Solution Sheets
  20. F | Mathematical Phrases, Symbols, and Formulas
  21. G | Notes for the TI-83, 83+, 84, 84+ Calculators
  22. H | Tables
  23. Index
Bernoulli trials
an experiment with the following characteristics:
  1. There are only two possible outcomes called success and failure for each trial
  2. The probability p of a success is the same for any trial (so the probability q = 1 − p of a failure is the same for any trial)
binomial experiment
a statistical experiment that satisfies the following three conditions:
  1. There are a fixed number of trials, n
  2. There are only two possible outcomes, called success and, failure, for each trial; the letter p denotes the probability of a success on one trial, and q denotes the probability of a failure on one trial
  3. The n trials are independent and are repeated using identical conditions
binomial probability distribution
a discrete random variable (RV) that arises from Bernoulli trials; there are a fixed number, n, of independent trials
Independent means that the result of any trial (for example, trial one) does not affect the results of the following trials, and all trials are conducted under the same conditions. Under these circumstances the binomial RV X is defined as the number of successes in n trials. The notation is: X ~ B(n, p). The mean is μ = np and the standard deviation is σ = npq npq . The probability of the following exactly x successes in n trials is
P(X = x) = ( n x ) ( n x ) pxqn − x
expected value
expected arithmetic average when an experiment is repeated many times; also called the mean; notations μ; for a discrete random variable (RV) with probability distribution function P(x),the definition can also be written in the form μ = xP(x)
geometric distribution
a discrete random variable (RV) that arises from the Bernoulli trials; the trials are repeated until the first success.
The geometric variable X is defined as the number of trials until the first success. Notation X ~ G(p). The mean is μ = 1 p 1 p and the standard deviation is σ = 1 p ( 1 p 1 ) 1 p ( 1 p 1 ) . The probability of exactly x failures before the first success is given by the formula
P(X=x)=p(1p)x1P(X=x)=p(1p)x1
.
geometric experiment
a statistical experiment with the following properties:
  1. There are one or more Bernoulli trials with all failures except the last one, which is a success
  2. In theory, the number of trials could go on foreve; there must be at least one trial
  3. The probability, p, of a success and the probability, q, of a failure do not change from trial to trial
hypergeometric experiment
a statistical experiment with the following properties:
  1. You take samples from two groups
  2. You are concerned with a group of interest, called the first group
  3. You sample without replacement from the combined groups
  4. Each pick is not independent, since sampling is without replacement
  5. You are not dealing with Bernoulli trials
hypergeometric probability
a discrete random variable (RV) that is characterized by the following:
  1. The experiment uses a fixed number of trials.
  2. The probability of success is not the same from trial to trial
We sample from two groups of items when we are interested in only one group. X is defined as the number of successes out of the total number of items chosen. Notation X ~ H(r, b, n), where r = the number of items in the group of interest, b = the number of items in the group not of interest, and n = the number of items chosen.
mean
a number that measures the central tendency; a common name for mean is average
The term mean is a shortened form of arithmetic mean. By definition, the mean for a sample (denoted by x ¯ x ¯ ) is x ¯ = Sum of all values in the sampleNumber of values in the sample x ¯ = Sum of all values in the sampleNumber of values in the sample and the mean for a population (denoted by μ) is μ = Sum of all values in the population Number of values in the population Sum of all values in the population Number of values in the population .
mean of a probability distribution
the long-term average of many trials of a statistical experiment
Poisson probability distribution
a discrete random variable (RV) that counts the number of times a certain event will occur in a specific interval; characteristics of the variable:
  • The probability that the event occurs in a given interval is the same for all intervals
  • The events occur with a known mean and independently of the time since the last event
The distribution is defined by the mean μ of the event in the interval. Notation X ~ P(μ). The mean is μ = np. The standard deviation is σ =  μ σ =  μ . The probability of having exactly x successes in r trials is P(X=x)= ( e μ ) μ x x! P(X=x)= ( e μ ) μ x x! . The Poisson distribution is often used to approximate the binomial distribution, when n is large and p is small (a general rule is that n should be greater than or equal to 20 and p should be less than or equal to .05).
probability distribution function (PDF)
a mathematical description of a discrete random variable (RV), given either in the form of an equation (formula) or in the form of a table listing all the possible outcomes of an experiment and the probability associated with each outcome
random variable (RV)
a characteristic of interest in a population being studied; common notation for variables are uppercase Latin letters X, Y, Z, . . . ; common notation for a specific value from the domain (set of all possible values of a variable) are lowercase Latin letters x, y, and z
For example, if X is the number of children in a family, then x represents a specific integer 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ; variables in statistics differ from variables in intermediate algebra in the two following ways:
  • The domain of the random variable (RV) is not necessarily a numerical set; the domain may be expressed in words; for example, if X = hair color then the domain is {black, blond, gray, green, orange}
  • We can tell what specific value x the random variable X takes only after performing the experiment
standard deviation of a probability distribution
a number that measures how far the outcomes of a statistical experiment are from the mean of the distribution
the law of large numbers
as the number of trials in a probability experiment increases, the difference between the theoretical probability of an event and the relative frequency probability approaches zero
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