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Statistics

3.3 Two Basic Rules of Probability

Statistics3.3 Two Basic Rules of Probability

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Sampling and Data
    1. Introduction
    2. 1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms
    3. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling
    4. 1.3 Frequency, Frequency Tables, and Levels of Measurement
    5. 1.4 Experimental Design and Ethics
    6. 1.5 Data Collection Experiment
    7. 1.6 Sampling Experiment
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. Bringing It Together: Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  3. 2 Descriptive Statistics
    1. Introduction
    2. 2.1 Stem-and-Leaf Graphs (Stemplots), Line Graphs, and Bar Graphs
    3. 2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Time Series Graphs
    4. 2.3 Measures of the Location of the Data
    5. 2.4 Box Plots
    6. 2.5 Measures of the Center of the Data
    7. 2.6 Skewness and the Mean, Median, and Mode
    8. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data
    9. 2.8 Descriptive Statistics
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. Bringing It Together: Homework
    16. References
    17. Solutions
  4. 3 Probability Topics
    1. Introduction
    2. 3.1 Terminology
    3. 3.2 Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events
    4. 3.3 Two Basic Rules of Probability
    5. 3.4 Contingency Tables
    6. 3.5 Tree and Venn Diagrams
    7. 3.6 Probability Topics
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Formula Review
    11. Practice
    12. Bringing It Together: Practice
    13. Homework
    14. Bringing It Together: Homework
    15. References
    16. Solutions
  5. 4 Discrete Random Variables
    1. Introduction
    2. 4.1 Probability Distribution Function (PDF) for a Discrete Random Variable
    3. 4.2 Mean or Expected Value and Standard Deviation
    4. 4.3 Binomial Distribution (Optional)
    5. 4.4 Geometric Distribution (Optional)
    6. 4.5 Hypergeometric Distribution (Optional)
    7. 4.6 Poisson Distribution (Optional)
    8. 4.7 Discrete Distribution (Playing Card Experiment)
    9. 4.8 Discrete Distribution (Lucky Dice Experiment)
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. References
    16. Solutions
  6. 5 Continuous Random Variables
    1. Introduction
    2. 5.1 Continuous Probability Functions
    3. 5.2 The Uniform Distribution
    4. 5.3 The Exponential Distribution (Optional)
    5. 5.4 Continuous Distribution
    6. Key Terms
    7. Chapter Review
    8. Formula Review
    9. Practice
    10. Homework
    11. References
    12. Solutions
  7. 6 The Normal Distribution
    1. Introduction
    2. 6.1 The Standard Normal Distribution
    3. 6.2 Using the Normal Distribution
    4. 6.3 Normal Distribution—Lap Times
    5. 6.4 Normal Distribution—Pinkie Length
    6. Key Terms
    7. Chapter Review
    8. Formula Review
    9. Practice
    10. Homework
    11. References
    12. Solutions
  8. 7 The Central Limit Theorem
    1. Introduction
    2. 7.1 The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means (Averages)
    3. 7.2 The Central Limit Theorem for Sums (Optional)
    4. 7.3 Using the Central Limit Theorem
    5. 7.4 Central Limit Theorem (Pocket Change)
    6. 7.5 Central Limit Theorem (Cookie Recipes)
    7. Key Terms
    8. Chapter Review
    9. Formula Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. References
    13. Solutions
  9. 8 Confidence Intervals
    1. Introduction
    2. 8.1 A Single Population Mean Using the Normal Distribution
    3. 8.2 A Single Population Mean Using the Student's t-Distribution
    4. 8.3 A Population Proportion
    5. 8.4 Confidence Interval (Home Costs)
    6. 8.5 Confidence Interval (Place of Birth)
    7. 8.6 Confidence Interval (Women's Heights)
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Formula Review
    11. Practice
    12. Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  10. 9 Hypothesis Testing with One Sample
    1. Introduction
    2. 9.1 Null and Alternative Hypotheses
    3. 9.2 Outcomes and the Type I and Type II Errors
    4. 9.3 Distribution Needed for Hypothesis Testing
    5. 9.4 Rare Events, the Sample, and the Decision and Conclusion
    6. 9.5 Additional Information and Full Hypothesis Test Examples
    7. 9.6 Hypothesis Testing of a Single Mean and Single Proportion
    8. Key Terms
    9. Chapter Review
    10. Formula Review
    11. Practice
    12. Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  11. 10 Hypothesis Testing with Two Samples
    1. Introduction
    2. 10.1 Two Population Means with Unknown Standard Deviations
    3. 10.2 Two Population Means with Known Standard Deviations
    4. 10.3 Comparing Two Independent Population Proportions
    5. 10.4 Matched or Paired Samples (Optional)
    6. 10.5 Hypothesis Testing for Two Means and Two Proportions
    7. Key Terms
    8. Chapter Review
    9. Formula Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. Bringing It Together: Homework
    13. References
    14. Solutions
  12. 11 The Chi-Square Distribution
    1. Introduction
    2. 11.1 Facts About the Chi-Square Distribution
    3. 11.2 Goodness-of-Fit Test
    4. 11.3 Test of Independence
    5. 11.4 Test for Homogeneity
    6. 11.5 Comparison of the Chi-Square Tests
    7. 11.6 Test of a Single Variance
    8. 11.7 Lab 1: Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
    9. 11.8 Lab 2: Chi-Square Test of Independence
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. Bringing It Together: Homework
    16. References
    17. Solutions
  13. 12 Linear Regression and Correlation
    1. Introduction
    2. 12.1 Linear Equations
    3. 12.2 The Regression Equation
    4. 12.3 Testing the Significance of the Correlation Coefficient (Optional)
    5. 12.4 Prediction (Optional)
    6. 12.5 Outliers
    7. 12.6 Regression (Distance from School) (Optional)
    8. 12.7 Regression (Textbook Cost) (Optional)
    9. 12.8 Regression (Fuel Efficiency) (Optional)
    10. Key Terms
    11. Chapter Review
    12. Formula Review
    13. Practice
    14. Homework
    15. Bringing It Together: Homework
    16. References
    17. Solutions
  14. 13 F Distribution and One-way Anova
    1. Introduction
    2. 13.1 One-Way ANOVA
    3. 13.2 The F Distribution and the F Ratio
    4. 13.3 Facts About the F Distribution
    5. 13.4 Test of Two Variances
    6. 13.5 Lab: One-Way ANOVA
    7. Key Terms
    8. Chapter Review
    9. Formula Review
    10. Practice
    11. Homework
    12. References
    13. Solutions
  15. A | Appendix A Review Exercises (Ch 3–13)
  16. B | Appendix B Practice Tests (1–4) and Final Exams
  17. C | Data Sets
  18. D | Group and Partner Projects
  19. E | Solution Sheets
  20. F | Mathematical Phrases, Symbols, and Formulas
  21. G | Notes for the TI-83, 83+, 84, 84+ Calculators
  22. H | Tables
  23. Index

In calculating probability, there are two rules to consider when you are determining if two events are independent or dependent and if they are mutually exclusive or not.

The Multiplication Rule

If A and B are two events defined on a sample space, then P(A AND B) = P(B)P(A|B).

This equation can be rewritten as P(A AND B) = P(B)P(A|B), the multiplication rule.

If A and B are independent, then P(A|B) = P(A). In this special case, P(A AND B) = P(A|B)P(B) becomes P(A AND B) = P(A)P(B).

A bag contains four green marbles, three red marbles, and two yellow marbles. Mark draws two marbles from the bag without replacement. The probability that he draws a yellow marble and then a green marble is

P( yellow and green )=P( yellow )P( green | yellow ) = 2 9 4 8 = 1 9 P( yellow and green )=P( yellow )P( green | yellow ) = 2 9 4 8 = 1 9

Notice that P( green | yellow )= 4 8 P( green | yellow )= 4 8 . After the yellow marble is drawn, there are four green marbles in the bag and eight marbles in all.

The Addition Rule

If A and B are defined on a sample space, then P(A OR B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A AND B).

Draw one card from a standard deck of playing cards. Let H = the card is a heart, and let J = the card is a jack. These events are not mutually exclusive because a card can be both a heart and a jack.

P( H or J )=P( H )+P( J )P( H and J ) = 13 52 + 4 52 1 52 = 16 52 = 4 13 .3077 P( H or J )=P( H )+P( J )P( H and J ) = 13 52 + 4 52 1 52 = 16 52 = 4 13 .3077
3.3

If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A AND B) = 0. Then P(A OR B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A AND B) becomes
P(A OR B) = P(A) + P(B).

Draw one card from a standard deck of playing cards. Let H = the card is a heart and S = the card is a spade. These events are mutually exclusive because a card cannot be a heart and a spade at the same time. The probability that the card is a heart or a spade is

P( H or S )=P( H )+P( S ) = 13 52 + 13 52 = 26 52 = 1 2 =.5 P( H or S )=P( H )+P( S ) = 13 52 + 13 52 = 26 52 = 1 2 =.5
3.4

Example 3.14

Klaus is trying to choose where to go on vacation. His two choices are: A = New Zealand and B = Alaska.

  • Klaus can only afford one vacation. The probability that he chooses A is P(A) = .6 and the probability that he chooses B is P(B) = .35.
  • P(A AND B) = 0 because Klaus can only afford to take one vacation.
  • Therefore, the probability that he chooses either New Zealand or Alaska is P(A OR B) = P(A) + P(B) = .6 + .35 = .95. Note that the probability that he does not choose to go anywhere on vacation must be .05.

Example 3.15

Carlos plays college soccer. He makes a goal 65 percent of the time he shoots. Carlos is going to attempt two goals in a row in the next game. A = the event Carlos is successful on his first attempt. P(A) = .65. B = the event Carlos is successful on his second attempt. P(B) = .65. Carlos tends to shoot in streaks. The probability that he makes the second goal given that he made the first goal is .90.

Problem

a. What is the probability that he makes both goals?

Problem

b. What is the probability that Carlos makes either the first goal or the second goal?

Problem

c. Are A and B independent?

Problem

d. Are A and B mutually exclusive?

Try It 3.15

Helen plays basketball. For free throws, she makes the shot 75 percent of the time. Helen must now attempt two free throws. C = the event that Helen makes the first shot.
P(C) = .75. D = the event Helen makes the second shot. P(D) = .75. The probability that Helen makes the second free throw given that she made the first is .85. What is the probability that Helen makes both free throws?

Example 3.16

A community swim team has 150 members. Seventy-five of the members are advanced swimmers. Forty-seven of the members are intermediate swimmers. The remainder are novice swimmers. Forty of the advanced swimmers practice four times a week. Thirty of the intermediate swimmers practice four times a week. Ten of the novice swimmers practice four times a week. Suppose one member of the swim team is chosen randomly.

Problem

a. What is the probability that the member is a novice swimmer?

Problem

b. What is the probability that the member practices four times a week?

Problem

c. What is the probability that the member is an advanced swimmer and practices four times a week?

Problem

d. What is the probability that a member is an advanced swimmer and an intermediate swimmer? Are being an advanced swimmer and being an intermediate swimmer mutually exclusive? Why or why not?

Problem

e. Are being a novice swimmer and practicing four times a week independent events? Why or why not?

Try It 3.16

A school has 200 seniors of whom 140 will be going to college next year. Forty will be going directly to work. The remainder are taking a gap year. Fifty of the seniors going to college are on their school's sports teams. Thirty of the seniors going directly to work are on their school's sports teams. Five of the seniors taking a gap year are on their schools sports teams. What is the probability that a senior is taking a gap year?

Example 3.17

Felicity attends a school in Modesto, CA. The probability that Felicity enrolls in a math class is .2 and the probability that she enrolls in a speech class is .65. The probability that she enrolls in a math class GIVEN that she enrolls in speech class is .25.

Let M = math class, S = speech class, and M|S = math given speech.

Problem

  1. What is the probability that Felicity enrolls in math and speech?
    Find P(M AND S) = P(M|S)P(S).
  2. What is the probability that Felicity enrolls in math or speech classes?
    Find P(M OR S) = P(M) + P(S) − P(M AND S).
  3. Are M and S independent? Is P(M|S) = P(M)?
  4. Are M and S mutually exclusive? Is P(M AND S) = 0?

Try It 3.17

A student goes to the library. Let events B = the student checks out a book and D = the student checks out a DVD. Suppose that P(B) = .40, P(D) = .30, and P(D|B) = .5.

  1. Find P(B AND D).
  2. Find P(B OR D).

Example 3.18

Researchers are studying one particular type of disease that affects women more often than men. Studies show that about one woman in seven (approximately 14.3 percent) who live to be 90 will develop the disease. Suppose that of those women who develop this disease, a test is negative 2 percent of the time. Also suppose that in the general population of women, the test for the disease is negative about 85 percent of the time. Let B = woman develops the disease and let N = tests negative. Suppose one woman is selected at random.

Problem

a. What is the probability that the woman develops the disease? What is the probability that woman tests negative?

Problem

b. Given that the woman develops the disease, what is the probability that she tests negative?

Problem

c. What is the probability that the woman has the disease AND tests negative?

Problem

d. What is the probability that the woman has the disease OR tests negative?

Problem

e. Are having the disease and testing negative independent events?

Problem

f. Are having the disease and testing negative mutually exclusive?

Try It 3.18

A school has 200 seniors of whom 140 will be going to college next year. Forty will be going directly to work. The remainder are taking a gap year. Fifty of the seniors going to college are on their school's sports teams. Thirty of the seniors going directly to work are on their school's sports teams. Five of the seniors taking a gap year are on their school's sports teams. What is the probability that a senior is going to college and plays sports?

Example 3.19

Problem

Refer to the information in Example 3.18. P = tests positive.

  1. Given that a woman develops the disease, what is the probability that she tests positive? Find P(P|B) = 1 − P(N|B).
  2. What is the probability that a woman develops the disease and tests positive? Find P(B AND P) = P(P|B)P(B).
  3. What is the probability that a woman does not develop the disease? Find P(B′) = 1 − P(B).
  4. What is the probability that a woman tests positive for the disease? Find P(P) = 1 − P(N).

Try It 3.19

A student goes to the library. Let events B = the student checks out a book and D = the student checks out a DVD. Suppose that P(B) = .40, P(D) = .30, and P(D|B) = .5.

  1. Find P(B′).
  2. Find P(D AND B).
  3. Find P(B|D).
  4. Find P(D AND B′).
  5. Find P(D|B′).
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