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Principles of Finance

14.5 Predictions and Prediction Intervals

Principles of Finance14.5 Predictions and Prediction Intervals

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction to Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 1.1 What Is Finance?
    3. 1.2 The Role of Finance in an Organization
    4. 1.3 Importance of Data and Technology
    5. 1.4 Careers in Finance
    6. 1.5 Markets and Participants
    7. 1.6 Microeconomic and Macroeconomic Matters
    8. 1.7 Financial Instruments
    9. 1.8 Concepts of Time and Value
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Video Activity
  3. 2 Corporate Structure and Governance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 2.1 Business Structures
    3. 2.2 Relationship between Shareholders and Company Management
    4. 2.3 Role of the Board of Directors
    5. 2.4 Agency Issues: Shareholders and Corporate Boards
    6. 2.5 Interacting with Investors, Intermediaries, and Other Market Participants
    7. 2.6 Companies in Domestic and Global Markets
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Video Activity
  4. 3 Economic Foundations: Money and Rates
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 3.1 Microeconomics
    3. 3.2 Macroeconomics
    4. 3.3 Business Cycles and Economic Activity
    5. 3.4 Interest Rates
    6. 3.5 Foreign Exchange Rates
    7. 3.6 Sources and Characteristics of Economic Data
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  5. 4 Accrual Accounting Process
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 4.1 Cash versus Accrual Accounting
    3. 4.2 Economic Basis for Accrual Accounting
    4. 4.3 How Does a Company Recognize a Sale and an Expense?
    5. 4.4 When Should a Company Capitalize or Expense an Item?
    6. 4.5 What Is “Profit” versus “Loss” for the Company?
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  6. 5 Financial Statements
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 5.1 The Income Statement
    3. 5.2 The Balance Sheet
    4. 5.3 The Relationship between the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement
    5. 5.4 The Statement of Owner’s Equity
    6. 5.5 The Statement of Cash Flows
    7. 5.6 Operating Cash Flow and Free Cash Flow to the Firm (FCFF)
    8. 5.7 Common-Size Statements
    9. 5.8 Reporting Financial Activity
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. CFA Institute
    13. Multiple Choice
    14. Review Questions
    15. Problems
    16. Video Activity
  7. 6 Measures of Financial Health
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 6.1 Ratios: Condensing Information into Smaller Pieces
    3. 6.2 Operating Efficiency Ratios
    4. 6.3 Liquidity Ratios
    5. 6.4 Solvency Ratios
    6. 6.5 Market Value Ratios
    7. 6.6 Profitability Ratios and the DuPont Method
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  8. 7 Time Value of Money I: Single Payment Value
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 7.1 Now versus Later Concepts
    3. 7.2 Time Value of Money (TVM) Basics
    4. 7.3 Methods for Solving Time Value of Money Problems
    5. 7.4 Applications of TVM in Finance
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  9. 8 Time Value of Money II: Equal Multiple Payments
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 8.1 Perpetuities
    3. 8.2 Annuities
    4. 8.3 Loan Amortization
    5. 8.4 Stated versus Effective Rates
    6. 8.5 Equal Payments with a Financial Calculator and Excel
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  10. 9 Time Value of Money III: Unequal Multiple Payment Values
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 9.1 Timing of Cash Flows
    3. 9.2 Unequal Payments Using a Financial Calculator or Microsoft Excel
    4. Summary
    5. Key Terms
    6. CFA Institute
    7. Multiple Choice
    8. Review Questions
    9. Problems
    10. Video Activity
  11. 10 Bonds and Bond Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 10.1 Characteristics of Bonds
    3. 10.2 Bond Valuation
    4. 10.3 Using the Yield Curve
    5. 10.4 Risks of Interest Rates and Default
    6. 10.5 Using Spreadsheets to Solve Bond Problems
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  12. 11 Stocks and Stock Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 11.1 Multiple Approaches to Stock Valuation
    3. 11.2 Dividend Discount Models (DDMs)
    4. 11.3 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Model
    5. 11.4 Preferred Stock
    6. 11.5 Efficient Markets
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  13. 12 Historical Performance of US Markets
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 12.1 Overview of US Financial Markets
    3. 12.2 Historical Picture of Inflation
    4. 12.3 Historical Picture of Returns to Bonds
    5. 12.4 Historical Picture of Returns to Stocks
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. Multiple Choice
    9. Review Questions
    10. Video Activity
  14. 13 Statistical Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 13.1 Measures of Center
    3. 13.2 Measures of Spread
    4. 13.3 Measures of Position
    5. 13.4 Statistical Distributions
    6. 13.5 Probability Distributions
    7. 13.6 Data Visualization and Graphical Displays
    8. 13.7 The R Statistical Analysis Tool
    9. Summary
    10. Key Terms
    11. CFA Institute
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Problems
    15. Video Activity
  15. 14 Regression Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 14.1 Correlation Analysis
    3. 14.2 Linear Regression Analysis
    4. 14.3 Best-Fit Linear Model
    5. 14.4 Regression Applications in Finance
    6. 14.5 Predictions and Prediction Intervals
    7. 14.6 Use of R Statistical Analysis Tool for Regression Analysis
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  16. 15 How to Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 15.1 Risk and Return to an Individual Asset
    3. 15.2 Risk and Return to Multiple Assets
    4. 15.3 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
    5. 15.4 Applications in Performance Measurement
    6. 15.5 Using Excel to Make Investment Decisions
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  17. 16 How Companies Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 16.1 Payback Period Method
    3. 16.2 Net Present Value (NPV) Method
    4. 16.3 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method
    5. 16.4 Alternative Methods
    6. 16.5 Choosing between Projects
    7. 16.6 Using Excel to Make Company Investment Decisions
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  18. 17 How Firms Raise Capital
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 17.1 The Concept of Capital Structure
    3. 17.2 The Costs of Debt and Equity Capital
    4. 17.3 Calculating the Weighted Average Cost of Capital
    5. 17.4 Capital Structure Choices
    6. 17.5 Optimal Capital Structure
    7. 17.6 Alternative Sources of Funds
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  19. 18 Financial Forecasting
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 18.1 The Importance of Forecasting
    3. 18.2 Forecasting Sales
    4. 18.3 Pro Forma Financials
    5. 18.4 Generating the Complete Forecast
    6. 18.5 Forecasting Cash Flow and Assessing the Value of Growth
    7. 18.6 Using Excel to Create the Long-Term Forecast
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  20. 19 The Importance of Trade Credit and Working Capital in Planning
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 19.1 What Is Working Capital?
    3. 19.2 What Is Trade Credit?
    4. 19.3 Cash Management
    5. 19.4 Receivables Management
    6. 19.5 Inventory Management
    7. 19.6 Using Excel to Create the Short-Term Plan
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Video Activity
  21. 20 Risk Management and the Financial Manager
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 20.1 The Importance of Risk Management
    3. 20.2 Commodity Price Risk
    4. 20.3 Exchange Rates and Risk
    5. 20.4 Interest Rate Risk
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  22. Index

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Calculate predictions for the dependent variable using the regression model.
  • Generate prediction intervals based on a prediction for the dependent variable.

Predicting the Dependent Variable Using the Regression Model

A key aspect of generating the linear regression model is to use the model for predictions, provided the correlation is significant. To generate predictions or forecasts using the linear regression model, substitute the value of the independent variable (x) in the regression equation and solve the equation for the dependent variable (y).

In a previous example, the linear regression equation was generated to relate the amount of monthly revenue for a Fortune 500 company to the amount of monthly advertising spend. From the previous example, it was determined that the regression equation can be written as

y^ = a+bxy^ = 9,376.7+61.8xy^ = a+bxy^ = 9,376.7+61.8x
14.18

where x represents the amount spent on advertising (in thousands of dollars) and y represents the amount of revenue (in thousands of dollars).

Let’s assume the Fortune 500 company would like to predict the monthly revenue for a month where it plans to spend $80,000 for advertising. To determine the estimate of monthly revenue, let x=80x=80 in the regression equation and calculate a corresponding value for ŷ:

y^ = 9,376.7+61.8xy^ = 9,376.7+61.880y^ = 14,320.70y^ = 9,376.7+61.8xy^ = 9,376.7+61.880y^ = 14,320.70
14.19

This predicted value of y indicates that the forecasted revenue would be $14,320,700, assuming an advertising spend of $80,000.

  • Excel can provide this forecasted value directly using the =FORECAST command.
  • To use this command, enter the value of the independent variable x, followed by the cell range for the y-data and the cell range for the x-data, as follows: =FORECAST(X_VALUE, Range of Y-DATA, Range of X-DATA)

  • Using this Excel command, the forecasted value for the revenue is $14,320.52 when the advertising spend is $80 (in thousands of dollars) (see Figure 14.9). (Note: The discrepancy in the more precise Excel result and the formula result is due to rounding in interim calculations.)
A screenshot of a spreadsheet showing the Excel FORECAST command to calculate the forecasted value for revenue. There are 12 rows and three columns of data. There is data for the advertising expenditure and revenue for the 12 months of a year, going from January to December. The forecasted revenue value is $14,320,000, when the advertising spend is $80,000. The Excel forecast command for this example is =FORECAST open parenthesis 80 comma C2 colon C13 comma B2 colon B13 close parenthesis.
Figure 14.9 Revenue versus Advertising for Fortune 500 Company ($000s) Showing FORECAST Command in Excel

A word of caution when predicting values for y: it is generally recommended to only predict values for y using values of x that are in the original range of the data collection.

As an example, assume we have developed a linear model to predict the height of male children based on their age. We have collected data for the age range from x=3x=3 years old to x=10x=10 years old, and we have confirmed that the scatter plot shows a linear trend and that the correlation is significant.

It would be erroneous to use this model to predict the height of a 25-year-old male since x=25x=25 is outside the range of the x-data, which was from 3 to 10 years old. The reason this is not recommended is that a linear pattern cannot be assumed to continue beyond the x-value of 10 years old unless some data collection has occurred at ages greater than 10 to confirm that the linear pattern is consistent for x-values beyond 10 years old.

Generating Prediction Intervals

One important value of an estimated regression equation is its ability to predict the effects on y of a change in one or more values of the independent variables. The value of this is obvious. Careful policy cannot be made without estimates of the effects that may result. Indeed, it is the desire for particular results that drive the formation of most policy. Regression models can be, and have been, invaluable aids in forming such policies.

Remember that point estimates do not carry a particular level of probability, or level of confidence, because points have no “width” above which there is an area to measure. There are actually two different approaches to the issue of developing estimates of changes in the independent variable (or variables) on the dependent variable. The first approach wishes to measure the expected mean value of y from a specific change in the value of x.

The second approach to estimate the effect of a specific value of x on y treats the event as a single experiment: you choose x and multiply it times the coefficient, and that provides a single estimate of y. Because this approach acts as if there were a single experiment, the variance that exists in the parameter estimate is larger than the variance associated with the expected value approach.

The conclusion is that we have two different ways to predict the effect of values of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable, and thus we have two different intervals. Both are correct answers to the question being asked, but there are two different questions. To avoid confusion, the first case where we are asking for the expected value of the mean of the estimated y is called a confidence interval. The second case, where we are asking for the estimate of the impact on the dependent variable y of a single experiment using a value of x, is called the prediction interval.

The prediction interval for an individual y for x=xpx=xp can be calculated as

y^=± tα2se 1+1n+xp-x¯2sxy^=± tα2se 1+1n+xp-x¯2sx
14.20

where se is the standard deviation of the error term, sx is the standard deviation of the x-variable, and tα2tα2 is the critical value of the t-distribution at the 1  α1  α confidence level.

Tabulated values of the t-distribution are available in online references such as the Engineering Statistics Handbook. The mathematical computations for prediction intervals are complex, and usually the calculations are performed using software. The formula above can be implemented in Excel to create a 95% prediction interval for the forecast for monthly revenue when x=$80,000x=$80,000 is spent on monthly advertising. Figure 14.10 shows the detailed calculations in Excel to arrive at a 95% prediction interval of (13,270.95, 15,370.09) for the monthly revenue. (The commands refer to the Excel data table shown in Figure 14.9.)

A screenshot of a spreadsheet that shows the calculations for the upper (15,370.093) and lower (13,270.946) bound of a 95% prediction level. It shows the measurement in column E, symbol in column F, value in column G, and the Excel command or formula for nine statistical calculation inputs in Column H. The measurements are sample size, degrees of freedom, X-bar, standard error, squared deviations of x, value of x for predictor, forecasted value of y, value of t-distribution, and margin of error. The Excel commands used to determine the upper and lower bound are as follows. Please note any references to columns C or B refer to data presented in Figure 14.9. The Excel command to calculate the sample size is =COUNT open parenthesis C2 colon C13 close parenthesis. The value of this is 12. The Excel command to determine the degrees of freedom is =G3 minus 2. The value of this is 10. The Excel command to calculate the X bar is =AVERAGE open parenthesis B2 colon B13 close parenthesis. The value of this is 103.583333. The Excel command to calculate the standard error is = S T E Y X open parenthesis C2 colon C13 comma B2 colon B13 close parenthesis. The value of this is 443.92908. The Excel command to calculate the squared deviations of x is = D E V S Q open parenthesis B2 colon B13 close parenthesis. The value of this is 13054.917. The Excel command to determine the value of x for prediction is NA. The value of this is 80. The Excel command to determine the forecasted value of y is =FORECAST open parenthesis 80 comma C2 colon C13 comma B2 colon B13 close parenthesis. The value of this is 14320.520. The Excel command to determine the value of t distribution is = A B S open parenthesis T dot INV open parenthesis 0.025 comma G4 close parenthesis close parenthesis. The value of this is 2.22813885. The Excel command to determine the margin of error is =G10 asterisk G6 asterisk S Q R T open parenthesis 1+1/G3+ open parenthesis G8 minus G5 close parenthesis caret 2/G7 close parenthesis. The value of this is 1049.573. The Excel command to determine the lower bound is =G9 minus G11. The value of this is 13270.946. The Excel command to determine the upper bound is =G9+G11. The value of this is 15370.093.
Figure 14.10 Calculations for 95% Prediction Interval for Monthly Revenue

This prediction interval can be interpreted as follows: there is 95% confidence that when the amount spent on monthly advertising is $80,000, the corresponding monthly revenue will be between $13,270.95 and $15,370.09.

Various computer regression software packages provide programs within the regression functions to provide answers to inquiries of estimated predicted values of y given various values chosen for the x-variable(s). For example, the statistical program R provides these prediction intervals directly. It is important to know just which interval is being tested in the computer package because the difference in the size of the standard deviations will change the size of the interval estimated. This is shown in Figure 14.11.

A bell curve diagram that shows that the prediction interval is higher than the confidence interval at a 95% confidence level.
Figure 14.11 Prediction and Confidence Intervals for Regression Equation at 95% Confidence Level

Figure 14.11 shows visually the difference the standard deviation makes in the size of the estimated intervals. The confidence interval, measuring the expected value of the dependent variable, is smaller than the prediction interval for the same level of confidence. The expected value method assumes that the experiment is conducted multiple times rather than just once, as in the other method. The logic here is similar, although not identical, to that discussed when developing the relationship between the sample size and the confidence interval using the central limit theorem. There, as the number of experiments increased, the distribution narrowed, and the confidence interval became tighter around the expected value of the mean.

It is also important to note that the intervals around a point estimate are highly dependent upon the range of data used to estimate the equation, regardless of which approach is being used for prediction. Remember that all regression equations go through the point of means—that is, the mean value of y and the mean values of all independent variables in the equation. As the value of x gets further and further from the (x, y) point corresponding to the mean value of x and the mean value of y, the width of the estimated interval around the point estimate increases. Choosing values of x beyond the range of the data used to estimate the equation poses an even greater danger of creating estimates with little use, very large intervals, and risk of error. Figure 14.12 shows this relationship.

The line diagram shows the confidence interval for an individual value of x, Xp at 95% confidence level. It is observed that the value chosen to predict y, Xp in the graph, is further from the central weight of the data the interval expands in width, even while holding constant the level of confidence.
Figure 14.12 Confidence Interval for an Individual Value of x, X p X p , at 95% Confidence Level

Figure 14.12 demonstrates the concern for the quality of the estimated interval, whether it is a prediction interval or a confidence interval. As the value chosen to predict y, XpXp in the graph, is further from the central weight of the data, X¯X¯, we see the interval expand in width even while holding constant the level of confidence. This shows that the precision of any estimate will diminish as one tries to predict beyond the largest weight of the data and most certainly will degrade rapidly for predictions beyond the range of the data. Unfortunately, this is just where most predictions are desired. They can be made, but the width of the confidence interval may be so large as to render the prediction useless.

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