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Principles of Finance

14.3 Best-Fit Linear Model

Principles of Finance14.3 Best-Fit Linear Model

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction to Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 1.1 What Is Finance?
    3. 1.2 The Role of Finance in an Organization
    4. 1.3 Importance of Data and Technology
    5. 1.4 Careers in Finance
    6. 1.5 Markets and Participants
    7. 1.6 Microeconomic and Macroeconomic Matters
    8. 1.7 Financial Instruments
    9. 1.8 Concepts of Time and Value
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Video Activity
  3. 2 Corporate Structure and Governance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 2.1 Business Structures
    3. 2.2 Relationship between Shareholders and Company Management
    4. 2.3 Role of the Board of Directors
    5. 2.4 Agency Issues: Shareholders and Corporate Boards
    6. 2.5 Interacting with Investors, Intermediaries, and Other Market Participants
    7. 2.6 Companies in Domestic and Global Markets
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Video Activity
  4. 3 Economic Foundations: Money and Rates
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 3.1 Microeconomics
    3. 3.2 Macroeconomics
    4. 3.3 Business Cycles and Economic Activity
    5. 3.4 Interest Rates
    6. 3.5 Foreign Exchange Rates
    7. 3.6 Sources and Characteristics of Economic Data
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  5. 4 Accrual Accounting Process
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 4.1 Cash versus Accrual Accounting
    3. 4.2 Economic Basis for Accrual Accounting
    4. 4.3 How Does a Company Recognize a Sale and an Expense?
    5. 4.4 When Should a Company Capitalize or Expense an Item?
    6. 4.5 What Is “Profit” versus “Loss” for the Company?
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  6. 5 Financial Statements
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 5.1 The Income Statement
    3. 5.2 The Balance Sheet
    4. 5.3 The Relationship between the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement
    5. 5.4 The Statement of Owner’s Equity
    6. 5.5 The Statement of Cash Flows
    7. 5.6 Operating Cash Flow and Free Cash Flow to the Firm (FCFF)
    8. 5.7 Common-Size Statements
    9. 5.8 Reporting Financial Activity
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. CFA Institute
    13. Multiple Choice
    14. Review Questions
    15. Problems
    16. Video Activity
  7. 6 Measures of Financial Health
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 6.1 Ratios: Condensing Information into Smaller Pieces
    3. 6.2 Operating Efficiency Ratios
    4. 6.3 Liquidity Ratios
    5. 6.4 Solvency Ratios
    6. 6.5 Market Value Ratios
    7. 6.6 Profitability Ratios and the DuPont Method
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  8. 7 Time Value of Money I: Single Payment Value
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 7.1 Now versus Later Concepts
    3. 7.2 Time Value of Money (TVM) Basics
    4. 7.3 Methods for Solving Time Value of Money Problems
    5. 7.4 Applications of TVM in Finance
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  9. 8 Time Value of Money II: Equal Multiple Payments
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 8.1 Perpetuities
    3. 8.2 Annuities
    4. 8.3 Loan Amortization
    5. 8.4 Stated versus Effective Rates
    6. 8.5 Equal Payments with a Financial Calculator and Excel
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  10. 9 Time Value of Money III: Unequal Multiple Payment Values
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 9.1 Timing of Cash Flows
    3. 9.2 Unequal Payments Using a Financial Calculator or Microsoft Excel
    4. Summary
    5. Key Terms
    6. CFA Institute
    7. Multiple Choice
    8. Review Questions
    9. Problems
    10. Video Activity
  11. 10 Bonds and Bond Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 10.1 Characteristics of Bonds
    3. 10.2 Bond Valuation
    4. 10.3 Using the Yield Curve
    5. 10.4 Risks of Interest Rates and Default
    6. 10.5 Using Spreadsheets to Solve Bond Problems
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  12. 11 Stocks and Stock Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 11.1 Multiple Approaches to Stock Valuation
    3. 11.2 Dividend Discount Models (DDMs)
    4. 11.3 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Model
    5. 11.4 Preferred Stock
    6. 11.5 Efficient Markets
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  13. 12 Historical Performance of US Markets
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 12.1 Overview of US Financial Markets
    3. 12.2 Historical Picture of Inflation
    4. 12.3 Historical Picture of Returns to Bonds
    5. 12.4 Historical Picture of Returns to Stocks
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. Multiple Choice
    9. Review Questions
    10. Video Activity
  14. 13 Statistical Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 13.1 Measures of Center
    3. 13.2 Measures of Spread
    4. 13.3 Measures of Position
    5. 13.4 Statistical Distributions
    6. 13.5 Probability Distributions
    7. 13.6 Data Visualization and Graphical Displays
    8. 13.7 The R Statistical Analysis Tool
    9. Summary
    10. Key Terms
    11. CFA Institute
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Problems
    15. Video Activity
  15. 14 Regression Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 14.1 Correlation Analysis
    3. 14.2 Linear Regression Analysis
    4. 14.3 Best-Fit Linear Model
    5. 14.4 Regression Applications in Finance
    6. 14.5 Predictions and Prediction Intervals
    7. 14.6 Use of R Statistical Analysis Tool for Regression Analysis
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  16. 15 How to Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 15.1 Risk and Return to an Individual Asset
    3. 15.2 Risk and Return to Multiple Assets
    4. 15.3 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
    5. 15.4 Applications in Performance Measurement
    6. 15.5 Using Excel to Make Investment Decisions
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  17. 16 How Companies Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 16.1 Payback Period Method
    3. 16.2 Net Present Value (NPV) Method
    4. 16.3 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method
    5. 16.4 Alternative Methods
    6. 16.5 Choosing between Projects
    7. 16.6 Using Excel to Make Company Investment Decisions
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  18. 17 How Firms Raise Capital
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 17.1 The Concept of Capital Structure
    3. 17.2 The Costs of Debt and Equity Capital
    4. 17.3 Calculating the Weighted Average Cost of Capital
    5. 17.4 Capital Structure Choices
    6. 17.5 Optimal Capital Structure
    7. 17.6 Alternative Sources of Funds
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  19. 18 Financial Forecasting
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 18.1 The Importance of Forecasting
    3. 18.2 Forecasting Sales
    4. 18.3 Pro Forma Financials
    5. 18.4 Generating the Complete Forecast
    6. 18.5 Forecasting Cash Flow and Assessing the Value of Growth
    7. 18.6 Using Excel to Create the Long-Term Forecast
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  20. 19 The Importance of Trade Credit and Working Capital in Planning
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 19.1 What Is Working Capital?
    3. 19.2 What Is Trade Credit?
    4. 19.3 Cash Management
    5. 19.4 Receivables Management
    6. 19.5 Inventory Management
    7. 19.6 Using Excel to Create the Short-Term Plan
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Video Activity
  21. 20 Risk Management and the Financial Manager
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 20.1 The Importance of Risk Management
    3. 20.2 Commodity Price Risk
    4. 20.3 Exchange Rates and Risk
    5. 20.4 Interest Rate Risk
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  22. Index

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Calculate the slope and y-intercept for a linear regression model using technology.
  • Interpret and apply the slope and y-intercepts.

Calculate the Slope and y-Intercept for a Linear Regression Model Using Technology

Once a correlation has been deemed as significant, a best-fit linear regression model is developed. The goal in the regression analysis is to determine the coefficients a and b in the following regression equation:

y^=a+bxy^=a+bx
14.10

The slope (b) and y-intercept (a) can be calculated using the following formulas:

b = nxy - xynx2 - x2a = yn - bxnb = nxy - xynx2 - x2a = yn - bxn
14.11

These formulas can be quite cumbersome, especially for a significant number of data pairs, and thus technology is often used (such as Excel, a calculator, R statistical software, etc.).

Using Excel: To calculate the slope and y-intercept of the linear model, start by entering the (x, y) data in two columns in Excel. Then the Excel commands =SLOPE and =INTERCEPT can be used to calculate the slope and intercept, respectively.

The following data set will be used as an example: the monthly amount spent on advertising and the monthly revenue for a Fortune 500 company for 12 months (data is shown in Table 14.4).

Month

Advertising

Expenditure

Revenue
Jan 49 12,210
Feb 145 17,590
Mar 57 13,215
Apr 153 19,200
May 92 14,600
Jun 83 14,100
Jul 117 17,100
Aug 142 18,400
Sep 69 14,100
Oct 106 15,500
Nov 109 16,300
Dec 121 17,020
Table 14.4 Revenue versus Advertising for Fortune 500 Company ($000s)

To calculate the slope of the regression model, use the Excel command

=SLOPE(y-data range, x-data range)

It’s important to note that this Excel command expects that the y-data range is entered first and the x-data range is entered second. Since revenue depends on amount spent on advertising, revenue is considered the y-variable and amount spent on advertising is considered the x-variable. Notice the y-data is contained in cells C2 through C13 and the x-data is contained in cells B2 through B13. Thus the Excel command for slope would be entered as

=SLOPE(C2:C13, B2:B13)

In the same way, the Excel command to calculate the y-intercept of the regression model is

=INTERCEPT(y-data range, x-data range)

For the data set shown in the above table, the Excel command would be

=INTERCEPT(C2:C13, B2:B13)

The results are shown in Figure 14.6, where

slope b = 61.8intercept a = 9,376.7slope b = 61.8intercept a = 9,376.7
14.12
A screenshot of a spreadsheet showing the Excel commands to calculate the slope and intercept of monthly values for advertising expenditure and revenue from January to December. The calculated slope is 61.8 and the calculated intercept is 9,376.7.
Figure 14.6 Revenue versus Advertising for Fortune 500 Company ($000s) Showing Slope and y-Intercept Calculation in Excel

Based on this, the regression equation can be written as

y^ = a+bxy^=9,376.7+61.8xy^ = a+bxy^=9,376.7+61.8x
14.13

where x represents the amount spent on advertising (in thousands of dollars) and y represents the amount of revenue (in thousands of dollars).

Using a Financial Calculator

The financial calculator provides the slope and y-intercept for the linear regression model once the (x, y) data is inputted into the calculator.

Follow the steps in Table 14.5 for calculating the slope and y-intercept for the data set of amounts spent on advertising and revenue shown previously.

Step Description Enter Display
1 Enter [DATA] entry mode 2ND [DATA] X01 0.00
2 Clear any previous data 2ND [CLR WORK] X01 0.00
3 Enter first x-value of 49 49 ENTER X01 = 49.00
4 Move to next data entry Y01 = 1.00
5 Enter first y-value of 12210 12210 ENTER Y01 = 12,210.00
6 Move to next data entry X02 0.00
7 Enter second x-value of 145 145 ENTER X02 = 145.00
8 Move to next data entry Y02 = 1.00
9 Enter second y-value of 17590 17590ENTER Y02 = 17,590.00
10 Move to next data entry X03 0.00
11 Continue to enter remaining data values
12 Enter [STAT] mode 2ND [STAT]
13 Press [SET] until LIN appears 2ND [SET] LIN
14 Move to 1st statistical result n=n= 12.00
15 Move to next statistical result x¯=x¯= 103.58
16 Continue to scroll down until the value of a is displayed a=a= 9,376.70
17 Continue to scroll down until the value of b is displayed b=b= 61.80
Table 14.5 Calculator Steps for the Slope and y-Intercept

From the statistical results shown on the calculator display, the slope b is 61.8 and the y-intercept a is 9,367.7.

Based on this, the regression equation can be written as

y^ = a+bxy^ = 9,376.7+61.8xy^ = a+bxy^ = 9,376.7+61.8x
14.14

Interpret and Apply the Slope and y-Intercept

The slope of the line, b, describes how changes in the variables are related. It is important to interpret the slope of the line in the context of the situation represented by the data. You should be able to write a sentence interpreting the slope in plain English.

Interpretation of the Slope

The slope of the best-fit line tells us how the dependent variable (y) changes for every one unit increase in the independent (x) variable, on average.

In the previous example, the linear regression model for the monthly amount spent on advertising and the monthly revenue for a Fortune 500 company for 12 months was generated as follows:

y^ = a+bxy^=9,376.7+61.8xy^ = a+bxy^=9,376.7+61.8x
14.15

Since the slope was determined to be 61.8, the company can interpret this to mean that for every $1,000 dollars spent on advertising, on average, this will result in an increase in revenues of $61,800.

The intercept of the regression equation is the corresponding y-value when.

Interpretation of the Intercept

The intercept of the best-fit line tells us the expected mean value of y in the case where the x-variable is equal to zero.

However, in many scenarios it may not make sense to have the x-variable equal zero, and in these cases, the intercept does not have any meaning in the context of the problem. In other examples, the x-value of zero is outside the range of the x-data that was collected. In this case, we should not assign any interpretation to the y-intercept.

In the previous example, the range of data collected for the x-variable was from $49 to $153 spent per month on advertising. Since this interval does not include an x-value of zero, we would not provide any interpretation for the intercept.

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