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Principles of Finance

13.4 Statistical Distributions

Principles of Finance13.4 Statistical Distributions

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction to Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 1.1 What Is Finance?
    3. 1.2 The Role of Finance in an Organization
    4. 1.3 Importance of Data and Technology
    5. 1.4 Careers in Finance
    6. 1.5 Markets and Participants
    7. 1.6 Microeconomic and Macroeconomic Matters
    8. 1.7 Financial Instruments
    9. 1.8 Concepts of Time and Value
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Video Activity
  3. 2 Corporate Structure and Governance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 2.1 Business Structures
    3. 2.2 Relationship between Shareholders and Company Management
    4. 2.3 Role of the Board of Directors
    5. 2.4 Agency Issues: Shareholders and Corporate Boards
    6. 2.5 Interacting with Investors, Intermediaries, and Other Market Participants
    7. 2.6 Companies in Domestic and Global Markets
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Video Activity
  4. 3 Economic Foundations: Money and Rates
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 3.1 Microeconomics
    3. 3.2 Macroeconomics
    4. 3.3 Business Cycles and Economic Activity
    5. 3.4 Interest Rates
    6. 3.5 Foreign Exchange Rates
    7. 3.6 Sources and Characteristics of Economic Data
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  5. 4 Accrual Accounting Process
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 4.1 Cash versus Accrual Accounting
    3. 4.2 Economic Basis for Accrual Accounting
    4. 4.3 How Does a Company Recognize a Sale and an Expense?
    5. 4.4 When Should a Company Capitalize or Expense an Item?
    6. 4.5 What Is “Profit” versus “Loss” for the Company?
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  6. 5 Financial Statements
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 5.1 The Income Statement
    3. 5.2 The Balance Sheet
    4. 5.3 The Relationship between the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement
    5. 5.4 The Statement of Owner’s Equity
    6. 5.5 The Statement of Cash Flows
    7. 5.6 Operating Cash Flow and Free Cash Flow to the Firm (FCFF)
    8. 5.7 Common-Size Statements
    9. 5.8 Reporting Financial Activity
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. CFA Institute
    13. Multiple Choice
    14. Review Questions
    15. Problems
    16. Video Activity
  7. 6 Measures of Financial Health
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 6.1 Ratios: Condensing Information into Smaller Pieces
    3. 6.2 Operating Efficiency Ratios
    4. 6.3 Liquidity Ratios
    5. 6.4 Solvency Ratios
    6. 6.5 Market Value Ratios
    7. 6.6 Profitability Ratios and the DuPont Method
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  8. 7 Time Value of Money I: Single Payment Value
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 7.1 Now versus Later Concepts
    3. 7.2 Time Value of Money (TVM) Basics
    4. 7.3 Methods for Solving Time Value of Money Problems
    5. 7.4 Applications of TVM in Finance
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  9. 8 Time Value of Money II: Equal Multiple Payments
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 8.1 Perpetuities
    3. 8.2 Annuities
    4. 8.3 Loan Amortization
    5. 8.4 Stated versus Effective Rates
    6. 8.5 Equal Payments with a Financial Calculator and Excel
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  10. 9 Time Value of Money III: Unequal Multiple Payment Values
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 9.1 Timing of Cash Flows
    3. 9.2 Unequal Payments Using a Financial Calculator or Microsoft Excel
    4. Summary
    5. Key Terms
    6. CFA Institute
    7. Multiple Choice
    8. Review Questions
    9. Problems
    10. Video Activity
  11. 10 Bonds and Bond Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 10.1 Characteristics of Bonds
    3. 10.2 Bond Valuation
    4. 10.3 Using the Yield Curve
    5. 10.4 Risks of Interest Rates and Default
    6. 10.5 Using Spreadsheets to Solve Bond Problems
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  12. 11 Stocks and Stock Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 11.1 Multiple Approaches to Stock Valuation
    3. 11.2 Dividend Discount Models (DDMs)
    4. 11.3 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Model
    5. 11.4 Preferred Stock
    6. 11.5 Efficient Markets
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  13. 12 Historical Performance of US Markets
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 12.1 Overview of US Financial Markets
    3. 12.2 Historical Picture of Inflation
    4. 12.3 Historical Picture of Returns to Bonds
    5. 12.4 Historical Picture of Returns to Stocks
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. Multiple Choice
    9. Review Questions
    10. Video Activity
  14. 13 Statistical Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 13.1 Measures of Center
    3. 13.2 Measures of Spread
    4. 13.3 Measures of Position
    5. 13.4 Statistical Distributions
    6. 13.5 Probability Distributions
    7. 13.6 Data Visualization and Graphical Displays
    8. 13.7 The R Statistical Analysis Tool
    9. Summary
    10. Key Terms
    11. CFA Institute
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Problems
    15. Video Activity
  15. 14 Regression Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 14.1 Correlation Analysis
    3. 14.2 Linear Regression Analysis
    4. 14.3 Best-Fit Linear Model
    5. 14.4 Regression Applications in Finance
    6. 14.5 Predictions and Prediction Intervals
    7. 14.6 Use of R Statistical Analysis Tool for Regression Analysis
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  16. 15 How to Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 15.1 Risk and Return to an Individual Asset
    3. 15.2 Risk and Return to Multiple Assets
    4. 15.3 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
    5. 15.4 Applications in Performance Measurement
    6. 15.5 Using Excel to Make Investment Decisions
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  17. 16 How Companies Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 16.1 Payback Period Method
    3. 16.2 Net Present Value (NPV) Method
    4. 16.3 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method
    5. 16.4 Alternative Methods
    6. 16.5 Choosing between Projects
    7. 16.6 Using Excel to Make Company Investment Decisions
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  18. 17 How Firms Raise Capital
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 17.1 The Concept of Capital Structure
    3. 17.2 The Costs of Debt and Equity Capital
    4. 17.3 Calculating the Weighted Average Cost of Capital
    5. 17.4 Capital Structure Choices
    6. 17.5 Optimal Capital Structure
    7. 17.6 Alternative Sources of Funds
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  19. 18 Financial Forecasting
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 18.1 The Importance of Forecasting
    3. 18.2 Forecasting Sales
    4. 18.3 Pro Forma Financials
    5. 18.4 Generating the Complete Forecast
    6. 18.5 Forecasting Cash Flow and Assessing the Value of Growth
    7. 18.6 Using Excel to Create the Long-Term Forecast
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  20. 19 The Importance of Trade Credit and Working Capital in Planning
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 19.1 What Is Working Capital?
    3. 19.2 What Is Trade Credit?
    4. 19.3 Cash Management
    5. 19.4 Receivables Management
    6. 19.5 Inventory Management
    7. 19.6 Using Excel to Create the Short-Term Plan
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Video Activity
  21. 20 Risk Management and the Financial Manager
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 20.1 The Importance of Risk Management
    3. 20.2 Commodity Price Risk
    4. 20.3 Exchange Rates and Risk
    5. 20.4 Interest Rate Risk
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  22. Index

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Construct and interpret a frequency distribution.
  • Apply and evaluate probabilities using the normal distribution.
  • Apply and evaluate probabilities using the exponential distribution.

Frequency Distributions

A frequency distribution provides a method to organize and summarize a data set. For example, we might be interested in the spread, center, and shape of the data set’s distribution. When a data set has many data values, it can be difficult to see patterns and come to conclusions about important characteristics of the data. A frequency distribution allows us to organize and tabulate the data in a summarized way and also to create graphs to help facilitate an interpretation of the data set.

To create a basic frequency distribution, set up a table with three columns. The first column will show the intervals for the data, and the second column will show the frequency of the data values, or the count of how many data values fall within each interval. A third column can be added to include the relative frequency for each row, which is calculated by taking the frequency for that row and dividing it by the sum of all the frequencies in the table.

Think It Through

Graphing Demand and Supply

A financial consultant at a brokerage firm records the portfolio values for 20 clients, as shown in Table 13.5, where the portfolio values are shown in thousands of dollars.

278 318 422 577 618
735 798 864 903 944
1,052 1,099 1,132 1,180 1,279
1,365 1,471 1,572 1,787 1,905
Table 13.5 Portfolio Values for 20 Clients at a Brokerage Firm ($000s)

Create a frequency distribution table using the following intervals for the portfolio values:

0–299
13.29
300–599
13.30
600–899
13.31
900–1,199
13.32
1,200–1,499
13.33
1,500–1,799
13.34
1,800–2,099
13.35

Normal Distribution

The normal probability density function, a continuous distribution, is the most important of all the distributions. The normal distribution is applicable when the frequency of data values decreases with each class above and below the mean. The normal distribution can be applied to many examples from the finance industry, including average returns for mutual funds over a certain time period, portfolio values, and others. The normal distribution has two parameters, or numerical descriptive measures: the mean, μμ, and the standard deviation, σσ. The variable x represents the quantity being measured whose data values have a normal distribution.

Graph of a normal distribution. It is a bell shaped curve that is symmetrical about a vertical line drawn through the mean.
Figure 13.3 Graph of the Normal Distribution

The curve in Figure 13.3 is symmetric about a vertical line drawn through the mean, μμ. The mean is the same as the median, which is the same as the mode, because the graph is symmetric about μμ. As the notation indicates, the normal distribution depends only on the mean and the standard deviation. Because the area under the curve must equal 1, a change in the standard deviation, σσ, causes a change in the shape of the normal curve; the curve becomes fatter and wider or skinnier and taller depending on σσ. A change in μμ causes the graph to shift to the left or right. This means there are an infinite number of normal probability distributions.

To determine probabilities associated with the normal distribution, we find specific areas under the normal curve, and this is further discussed in Apply the Normal Distribution in Financial Contexts. For example, suppose that at a financial consulting company, the mean employee salary is $60,000 with a standard deviation of $7,500. A normal curve can be drawn to represent this scenario, in which the mean of $60,000 would be plotted on the horizontal axis, corresponding to the peak of the curve. Then, to find the probability that an employee earns more than $75,000, you would calculate the area under the normal curve to the right of the data value $75,000.

Excel uses the following command to find the area under the normal curve to the left of a specified value:

=NORM.DIST(XVALUE, MEAN, STANDARD_DEV, TRUE)

For example, at the financial consulting company mentioned above, the mean employee salary is $60,000 with a standard deviation of $7,500. To find the probability that a random employee’s salary is less than $55,000 using Excel, this is the command you would use:

=NORM.DIST(55000, 60000, 7500, TRUE)
Result: 0.25249

Thus, there is a probability of about 25% that a random employee has a salary less than $55,000.

Exponential Distribution

The exponential distribution is often concerned with the amount of time until some specific event occurs. For example, a finance professional might want to model the time to default on payments for company debt holders.

An exponential distribution is one in which there are fewer large values and more small values. For example, marketing studies have shown that the amount of money customers spend in a store follows an exponential distribution. There are more people who spend small amounts of money and fewer people who spend large amounts of money.

Exponential distributions are commonly used in calculations of product reliability, or the length of time a product lasts. The random variable for the exponential distribution is continuous and often measures a passage of time, although it can be used in other applications. Typical questions may be, What is the probability that some event will occur between x1 hours and x2 hours? or What is the probability that the event will take more than x1 hours to perform? In these examples, the random variable x equals either the time between events or the passage of time to complete an action (e.g., wait on a customer). The probability density function is given by

fx = 1μe-1μxfx = 1μe-1μx
13.36

where μμ is the historical average of the values of the random variable (e.g., the historical average waiting time). This probability density function has a mean and standard deviation of 1μ1μ.

To determine probabilities associated with the exponential distribution, we find specific areas under the exponential distribution curve. The following formula can be used to calculate the area under the exponential curve to the left of a certain value:

Fx = 1-e-1μxFx = 1-e-1μx
13.37

Think It Through

Calculating Probability

At a financial company, the mean time between incoming phone calls is 45 seconds, and the time between phone calls follows an exponential distribution, where the time is measured in minutes. Calculate the probability of having 2 minutes or less between phone calls.

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