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Principles of Finance

13.2 Measures of Spread

Principles of Finance13.2 Measures of Spread

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction to Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 1.1 What Is Finance?
    3. 1.2 The Role of Finance in an Organization
    4. 1.3 Importance of Data and Technology
    5. 1.4 Careers in Finance
    6. 1.5 Markets and Participants
    7. 1.6 Microeconomic and Macroeconomic Matters
    8. 1.7 Financial Instruments
    9. 1.8 Concepts of Time and Value
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Video Activity
  3. 2 Corporate Structure and Governance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 2.1 Business Structures
    3. 2.2 Relationship between Shareholders and Company Management
    4. 2.3 Role of the Board of Directors
    5. 2.4 Agency Issues: Shareholders and Corporate Boards
    6. 2.5 Interacting with Investors, Intermediaries, and Other Market Participants
    7. 2.6 Companies in Domestic and Global Markets
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Video Activity
  4. 3 Economic Foundations: Money and Rates
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 3.1 Microeconomics
    3. 3.2 Macroeconomics
    4. 3.3 Business Cycles and Economic Activity
    5. 3.4 Interest Rates
    6. 3.5 Foreign Exchange Rates
    7. 3.6 Sources and Characteristics of Economic Data
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  5. 4 Accrual Accounting Process
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 4.1 Cash versus Accrual Accounting
    3. 4.2 Economic Basis for Accrual Accounting
    4. 4.3 How Does a Company Recognize a Sale and an Expense?
    5. 4.4 When Should a Company Capitalize or Expense an Item?
    6. 4.5 What Is “Profit” versus “Loss” for the Company?
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  6. 5 Financial Statements
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 5.1 The Income Statement
    3. 5.2 The Balance Sheet
    4. 5.3 The Relationship between the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement
    5. 5.4 The Statement of Owner’s Equity
    6. 5.5 The Statement of Cash Flows
    7. 5.6 Operating Cash Flow and Free Cash Flow to the Firm (FCFF)
    8. 5.7 Common-Size Statements
    9. 5.8 Reporting Financial Activity
    10. Summary
    11. Key Terms
    12. CFA Institute
    13. Multiple Choice
    14. Review Questions
    15. Problems
    16. Video Activity
  7. 6 Measures of Financial Health
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 6.1 Ratios: Condensing Information into Smaller Pieces
    3. 6.2 Operating Efficiency Ratios
    4. 6.3 Liquidity Ratios
    5. 6.4 Solvency Ratios
    6. 6.5 Market Value Ratios
    7. 6.6 Profitability Ratios and the DuPont Method
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  8. 7 Time Value of Money I: Single Payment Value
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 7.1 Now versus Later Concepts
    3. 7.2 Time Value of Money (TVM) Basics
    4. 7.3 Methods for Solving Time Value of Money Problems
    5. 7.4 Applications of TVM in Finance
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  9. 8 Time Value of Money II: Equal Multiple Payments
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 8.1 Perpetuities
    3. 8.2 Annuities
    4. 8.3 Loan Amortization
    5. 8.4 Stated versus Effective Rates
    6. 8.5 Equal Payments with a Financial Calculator and Excel
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  10. 9 Time Value of Money III: Unequal Multiple Payment Values
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 9.1 Timing of Cash Flows
    3. 9.2 Unequal Payments Using a Financial Calculator or Microsoft Excel
    4. Summary
    5. Key Terms
    6. CFA Institute
    7. Multiple Choice
    8. Review Questions
    9. Problems
    10. Video Activity
  11. 10 Bonds and Bond Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 10.1 Characteristics of Bonds
    3. 10.2 Bond Valuation
    4. 10.3 Using the Yield Curve
    5. 10.4 Risks of Interest Rates and Default
    6. 10.5 Using Spreadsheets to Solve Bond Problems
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  12. 11 Stocks and Stock Valuation
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 11.1 Multiple Approaches to Stock Valuation
    3. 11.2 Dividend Discount Models (DDMs)
    4. 11.3 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Model
    5. 11.4 Preferred Stock
    6. 11.5 Efficient Markets
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  13. 12 Historical Performance of US Markets
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 12.1 Overview of US Financial Markets
    3. 12.2 Historical Picture of Inflation
    4. 12.3 Historical Picture of Returns to Bonds
    5. 12.4 Historical Picture of Returns to Stocks
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. Multiple Choice
    9. Review Questions
    10. Video Activity
  14. 13 Statistical Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 13.1 Measures of Center
    3. 13.2 Measures of Spread
    4. 13.3 Measures of Position
    5. 13.4 Statistical Distributions
    6. 13.5 Probability Distributions
    7. 13.6 Data Visualization and Graphical Displays
    8. 13.7 The R Statistical Analysis Tool
    9. Summary
    10. Key Terms
    11. CFA Institute
    12. Multiple Choice
    13. Review Questions
    14. Problems
    15. Video Activity
  15. 14 Regression Analysis in Finance
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 14.1 Correlation Analysis
    3. 14.2 Linear Regression Analysis
    4. 14.3 Best-Fit Linear Model
    5. 14.4 Regression Applications in Finance
    6. 14.5 Predictions and Prediction Intervals
    7. 14.6 Use of R Statistical Analysis Tool for Regression Analysis
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  16. 15 How to Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 15.1 Risk and Return to an Individual Asset
    3. 15.2 Risk and Return to Multiple Assets
    4. 15.3 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
    5. 15.4 Applications in Performance Measurement
    6. 15.5 Using Excel to Make Investment Decisions
    7. Summary
    8. Key Terms
    9. CFA Institute
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  17. 16 How Companies Think about Investing
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 16.1 Payback Period Method
    3. 16.2 Net Present Value (NPV) Method
    4. 16.3 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method
    5. 16.4 Alternative Methods
    6. 16.5 Choosing between Projects
    7. 16.6 Using Excel to Make Company Investment Decisions
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  18. 17 How Firms Raise Capital
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 17.1 The Concept of Capital Structure
    3. 17.2 The Costs of Debt and Equity Capital
    4. 17.3 Calculating the Weighted Average Cost of Capital
    5. 17.4 Capital Structure Choices
    6. 17.5 Optimal Capital Structure
    7. 17.6 Alternative Sources of Funds
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. CFA Institute
    11. Multiple Choice
    12. Review Questions
    13. Problems
    14. Video Activity
  19. 18 Financial Forecasting
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 18.1 The Importance of Forecasting
    3. 18.2 Forecasting Sales
    4. 18.3 Pro Forma Financials
    5. 18.4 Generating the Complete Forecast
    6. 18.5 Forecasting Cash Flow and Assessing the Value of Growth
    7. 18.6 Using Excel to Create the Long-Term Forecast
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Problems
    13. Video Activity
  20. 19 The Importance of Trade Credit and Working Capital in Planning
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 19.1 What Is Working Capital?
    3. 19.2 What Is Trade Credit?
    4. 19.3 Cash Management
    5. 19.4 Receivables Management
    6. 19.5 Inventory Management
    7. 19.6 Using Excel to Create the Short-Term Plan
    8. Summary
    9. Key Terms
    10. Multiple Choice
    11. Review Questions
    12. Video Activity
  21. 20 Risk Management and the Financial Manager
    1. Why It Matters
    2. 20.1 The Importance of Risk Management
    3. 20.2 Commodity Price Risk
    4. 20.3 Exchange Rates and Risk
    5. 20.4 Interest Rate Risk
    6. Summary
    7. Key Terms
    8. CFA Institute
    9. Multiple Choice
    10. Review Questions
    11. Problems
    12. Video Activity
  22. Index

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Define and calculate standard deviation for a data set.
  • Define and calculate variance for a data set.
  • Explain the relationship between standard deviation and variance.

Standard Deviation

An important characteristic of any set of data is the variation in the data. In some data sets, the data values are concentrated close to the mean; in other data sets, the data values are more widely spread out. For example, an investor might examine the yearly returns for Stock A, which are 1%, 2%, -1%, 0%, and 3%, and compare them to the yearly returns for Stock B, which are -9%, 2%, 15%, -5%, and 0%.

Notice that Stock B exhibits more volatility in yearly returns than Stock A. The investor may want to quantify this variation in order to make the best investment decisions for a particular investment objective.

The most common measure of variation, or spread, is standard deviation. The standard deviation of a data set is a measure of how far the data values are from their mean. A standard deviation

  • provides a numerical measure of the overall amount of variation in a data set; and
  • can be used to determine whether a particular data value is close to or far from the mean.

The standard deviation provides a measure of the overall variation in a data set. The standard deviation is always positive or zero. It is small when the data values are all concentrated close to the mean, exhibiting little variation or spread. It is larger when the data values are more spread out from the mean, exhibiting more variation.

Suppose that we are studying the variability of two different stocks, Stock A and Stock B. The average stock price for both stocks is $5. For Stock A, the standard deviation of the stock price is 2, whereas the standard deviation for Stock B is 4. Because Stock B has a higher standard deviation, we know that there is more variation in the stock price for Stock B than in the price for Stock A.

There are two different formulas for calculating standard deviation. Which formula to use depends on whether the data represents a sample or a population. The notation s is used to represent the sample standard deviation, and the notation σσ is used to represent the population standard deviation. In the formulas shown below, is the sample mean, μμ is the population mean, n is the sample size, and N is the population size.

Formula for the sample standard deviation:

s=(x - x¯)2n - 1s=(x - x¯)2n - 1
13.8

Formula for the population standard deviation:

 σ=(x-μ)2N σ=(x-μ)2N
13.9

Variance

Variance also provides a measure of the spread of data values. The variance of a data set measures the extent to which each data value differs from the mean. The more the individual data values differ from the mean, the larger the variance. Both the standard deviation and the variance provide similar information.

In a finance application, variance can be used to determine the volatility of an investment and therefore to help guide financial decisions. For example, a more cautious investor might opt for investments with low volatility.

Similar to standard deviation, the formula used to calculate variance also depends on whether the data is collected from a sample or a population. The notation s2s2 is used to represent the sample variance, and the notation σ2 is used to represent the population variance.

Formula for the sample variance:

s2=(x - x¯)2n - 1s2=(x - x¯)2n - 1
13.10

Formula for the population variance:

 σ2=(x-μ)2N σ2=(x-μ)2N
13.11

This is the method to calculate standard deviation and variance for a sample:

  1. First, find the mean x¯x¯ of the data set by adding the data values and dividing the sum by the number of data values.
  2. Set up a table with three columns, and in the first column, list the data values in the data set.
  3. For each row, subtract the mean from the data value (x-x¯)(x-x¯), and enter the difference in the second column. Note that the values in this column may be positive or negative. The sum of the values in this column will be zero.
  4. In the third column, for each row, square the value in the second column. So this third column will contain the quantity (Data Value – Mean)2 for each row. We can write this quantity as x - x¯2x - x¯2. Note that the values in this third column will always be positive because they represent a squared quantity.
  5. Add up all the values in the third column. This sum can be written as x-x¯2x-x¯2.
  6. Divide this sum by the quantity (n – 1), where n is the number of data points. We can write this as x - x¯2n - 1x - x¯2n - 1.
  7. This result is called the sample variance, denoted by s2. Thus, the formula for the sample variance is s2=x - x¯2n - 1s2=x - x¯2n - 1.
  8. Now take the square root of the sample variance. This value is the sample standard deviation, called s. Thus, the formula for the sample standard deviation is s=(x - x¯)2n - 1s=(x - x¯)2n - 1.
  9. Round-off rule: The sample variance and sample standard deviation are typically rounded to one more decimal place than the data values themselves.

Think It Through

Finding Standard Deviation and Variance

A brokerage firm advertises a new financial analyst position and receives 210 applications. The ages of a sample of 10 applicants for the position are as follows:

40, 36, 44, 51, 54, 55, 39, 47, 44, 5040, 36, 44, 51, 54, 55, 39, 47, 44, 50
13.12

The brokerage firm is interested in determining the standard deviation and variance for this sample of 10 ages.

As the above example illustrates, calculating the variance and standard deviation is a tedious process. A financial calculator can calculate statistical measurements such as mean and standard deviation quickly and efficiently.

There are two steps needed to perform statistical calculations on the calculator:

  1. Enter the data in the calculator using the [DATA] function, which is located above the 7 key.
  2. Access the statistical results provided by the calculator using the [STAT] function, which is located above the 8 key.

Follow the steps in Table 13.4 to calculate mean and standard deviation using the financial calculator. The ages data set from the Think It Through example above is used again here: 40, 36, 44, 51, 54, 55, 39, 47, 44, 50.

Step Description Enter Display
1 Enter [DATA] entry mode 2ND [DATA] X01 0.00
2 Clear any previous data 2ND [CLR WORK] X01 0.00
3 Enter first data value of 40 40 ENTER X01 = 40.00
4 Move to next data entry Y01 =  1.00
5 Move to next data entry X02 0.0
6 Enter second data value of 36 36 ENTER X02 = 36.00
7 Move to next data entry Y02 = 1.00
8 Move to next data entry X03 0.00
9 Enter third data value of 44 44 ENTER X03 = 44.00
10 Move to next data entry Y03 =  1.00
11 Continue to enter remaining data values      
12 Enter [STAT] mode 2nd [STAT] LIN  
13 Move to first statistical result n = 10.00
14 Move to next statistical result x¯=x¯= 46.00
15 Move to next statistical result Sx = 6.50
Table 13.4 Calculator Steps for Mean and Standard Deviation2

From the statistical results, the mean is shown as 46, and the sample standard deviation is shown as 6.50.

Excel provides a similar analysis using the built-in functions =AVERAGE (for the mean) and =STDEV.S (for the sample standard deviation). To calculate these statistical results in Excel, enter the data values in a column. Let’s assume the data values are placed in cells A2 through A11. In any cell, type the Excel command =AVERAGE(A2:A11) and press enter. Excel will calculate the arithmetic mean in this cell. Then, in any other cell, type the Excel command =STDEV.S(A2:A11) and press enter. Excel will calculate the sample standard deviation in this cell. Figure 13.2 shows the mean and standard deviation for the 10 ages.

Screenshot of an Excel sheet showing the commands to calculate the mean and standard deviation of a sample data. Ten ages are listed: 40, 36, 44, 51, 54, 55, 39, 47, 44, and 50. The Excel command to calculate the sample mean is =Average open parenthesis A2 colon A11 close parenthesis.  The result is 46.  The Excel command to calculate sample standard deviation is =STDEV dot s open parenthesis A2 colon A11 close parenthesis.  The result is 6.5
Figure 13.2 Mean and Standard Deviation in Excel.

Relationship between Standard Deviation and Variance

In the formulas shown above for variance and standard deviation, notice that the variance is the square of the standard deviation, and the standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Once you have calculated one of these values, you can directly calculate the other value. For example, if you know the standard deviation of a data set is 12.5, you can calculate the variance by squaring this standard deviation. The variance is then 12.52, which is 156.25.

In the same way, if you know the value of the variance, you can determine the standard deviation by calculating the square root of the variance. For example, if the variance of a data set is known to be 31.36, then the standard deviation can be calculated as the square root of 31.36, which is 5.6.

One disadvantage of using the variance is that the variance is measured in square units, which are different from the units in the data set. For example, if the data set consists of ages measured in years, then the variance would be measured in years squared, which can be confusing. The standard deviation is measured in the same units as the original data set, and thus the standard deviation is used more commonly than the variance to measure the spread of a data set.

Footnotes

  • 2The specific financial calculator in these examples is the Texas Instruments BA II PlusTM Professional model, but you can use other financial calculators for these types of calculations.
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