Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the clinical manifestations, treatment, and nursing actions in the event of a retained placenta
- Explain the clinical manifestations, treatment, and nursing actions in the event of an immediate postpartum hemorrhage
- Explain the clinical manifestations, treatment, and nursing actions in the event of an inverted uterus
During the third stage of labor, the placenta and the membranes are birthed. Several complications can occur during this stage. The placenta or parts of the placenta can be retained inside the uterus. The placenta can be implanted into the muscle of the uterus as well. Complications with the placenta can lead to postpartum hemorrhage, which can be a life-threatening complication. The nurse is prepared to treat postpartum hemorrhage quickly.
Retained Placenta
If the placenta has not delivered spontaneously within the expected 30 minutes, the health-care provider will determine if manual removal is indicated. If manual removal is not possible, the anesthesia provider is alerted of the need for a possible dilation and curettage (D&C) or hysterectomy. Occasionally, the placenta will partially detach, and the birthing person will begin to bleed and pass clots vaginally. This is an emergency situation requiring manual removal before the 30-minute waiting period. Nursing actions include emotional support and education of the birthing person and support person, requesting assistance in notifying the anesthesia provider of the probable need for surgery, administering pain medication, and administering uterotonics once the placenta is delivered.
Risk factors for retained placenta include uterine atony, placenta accreta spectrum, cervical closure, premature birth, and previous retained placenta (Perlman & Carusi, 2019). Congenital uterine anomalies such as bicornuate uterus increase the risk of retained placenta. Complications of retained placenta include postpartum hemorrhage, endometritis, and retained placental tissue.
Link to Learning
Manual removal of the placenta may be done by the health-care provider if the placenta or placental fragments are retained. This video from Global Health Media shows the manual removal of a placenta.
Cervical Closure
After birth of the infant, the cervix remains open until the birth of the placenta. Complications can occur if the cervix closes prematurely. In those cases, the placenta becomes trapped in the uterus. Trapped placentas can lead to postpartum hemorrhage. Treatment is administration of nitroglycerine to relax the uterus and cervix for manual extraction of the placenta. After removal of the placenta, oxytocin should be given to contract the uterus to decrease hemorrhage risk. The nurse will monitor vital signs, observing for hypotension, tachycardia, and inadequate oxygen saturation.
Preterm Birth
In the third stage of labor, delayed umbilical cord clamping is recommended for the preterm fetus. Preterm infants have increased incidences of blood transfusion, poor circulation, and intraventricular hemorrhage (Bennett et al., 2019). Delayed cord clamping can help prevent some of these complications. However, preterm birth has a higher incidence of retained placenta. If the placenta has not delivered within the expected 30 minutes, the nurse should prepare for transferring the birthing person to the operating room for a D&C to remove the placenta.
Spontaneous Abortion
The loss of a pregnancy prior to 20 weeks’ gestation is called a spontaneous abortion (SAB). It can be complete or incomplete. With an incomplete abortion, products of conception, such as fetal or placental tissue, can be retained. If the tissue can be seen at the cervical os, the health-care provider can remove it using ring forceps. If the tissue cannot be removed and bleeding is present, the person is taken to surgery to have a D&C to remove those products. Infection and bleeding can occur if the uterus is not free of all products of conception.
Placenta Accreta
Placenta accreta is the invasive adherence of part or all of the placenta to the uterus. Placenta accreta spectrum disorder describes all invasive placenta occurrences (Oppenheimer & Singh, 2022). Table 19.13 lists the different types of placentas in the placenta accreta spectrum disorders. The incidence of these disorders has increased as the rate of cesarean births has increased. The pregnant person’s risk is much higher, the more cesarean births that person has experienced. Other risk factors are age at delivery of 35 years or older, in vitro fertilization, placenta previa, and prior uterine surgery (Oppenheimer & Singh, 2022). The mortality rate of pregnant persons with placenta accreta spectrum disorder is approximately 7 percent.
| Placental Accreta Spectrum Disorders | Description |
|---|---|
| Grade 1: Placenta accreta | Abnormal adherent placenta Adherent to the superficial myometrium |
| Grade 2: Placenta increta | Abnormally invasive placenta Penetrate the uterine muscle but not to its full thickness |
| Grade 3: Placenta percreta | Abnormally invasive placenta Penetrates the wall of the uterus, perforates the serosa, and may grow into the bladder or other pelvic tissue or organs |
Succenturiate Lobe of the Placenta
An accessory lobe of the placenta that is separate from the main placenta is called a succenturiate lobe. The blood vessels feeding the lobe usually run through the membranes to the extra lobe. Figure 19.20 illustrates a succenturiate lobe and vessels. If these vessels cross the cervix, they can create a vasa previa. During the third stage of labor, the succenturiate lobe can be retained, which can cause postpartum hemorrhage or infection if not removed.
Immediate Postpartum Hemorrhage
Total blood loss greater than or equal to 1,000 mL or blood loss and signs or symptoms of hypovolemia within 24 hours after birth is considered postpartum hemorrhage. When hemorrhage occurs during the third stage of labor or the first hour after birth, it is considered an immediate postpartum hemorrhage. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that postpartum persons who have lost more than 500 mL of blood after a vaginal delivery be assessed by the health-care provider. There are multiple causes of postpartum bleeding. Table 19.14 describes the causes of postpartum hemorrhage using the four T’s.
| Considerations for PPH | Cause for PPH |
|---|---|
| Tone | Uterine atony* |
| Trauma | Lacerations or uterine rupture |
| Tissue | Retained placenta or clots |
| Thrombin | Clotting-factor disorder (most likely genetic and listed in problem list of prenatal record) |
*Most common cause—70 percent of postpartum hemorrhages. |
|
Uterine Atony
Uterine atony is the most common cause of postpartum hemorrhage. The uterus can become atonic after chorioamnionitis, magnesium sulfate infusion, prolonged or precipitous labor, overdistention of the uterus due to twins or macrosomia, or cesarean birth. Nursing actions in the first hour after delivery include assessment of the location and tone of the uterus. Upon discovery of uterine atony, the nurse will start vigorous uterine massage. Treatment of uterine atony can be oxytocin (Pitocin), methylergonovine (Methergine), misoprostol (Cytotec), carboprost (Hemabate), tromethamine (Tham), and/or tranexamic acid (Cyklokapron). A full bladder can displace the uterus and not allow it to contract efficiently. The nurse empties the bladder to prevent or treat uterine atony.
Retained Fragments of the Placenta
After the placenta is delivered, the health-care provider will examine the placenta and membranes for completeness. Retained placental fragments or membranes can cause immediate postpartum hemorrhage. When fragments are retained in the uterus, the uterus is unable to contract properly to stop the spiral arteries from attempting to feed the placenta. If retained fragments are suspected, the health-care provider will manually evacuate the uterus.
Lacerations
Cervical and vaginal lacerations can cause immediate postpartum hemorrhage. Careful inspection is very important. If the nurse notices heavy vaginal bleeding and the uterus is contracted, inspection of the vagina for lacerations should occur. The health-care provider can assess for cervical lacerations using ring forceps to evaluate the completeness of the cervix. Lacerations are repaired using absorbable sutures. Figure 19.21 illustrates a cervical laceration.
Inversion of the Uterus
When the uterus turns inside out, protruding through the vagina, called inversion of the uterus, it is a life-threatening complication in the third stage of labor (Kumari et al., 2022). This occurs more often with active management of the third stage. However, other risk factors can be precipitous labor, manual removal of the placenta, and traction on a short umbilical cord. The signs of uterine inversion are hemorrhage, shock, and pelvic pain. The nurse attempts to massage the uterus, but the fundus cannot be palpated. The most common complication is hypovolemic shock and vagal response to sudden stretching of the uterine ligaments (Kumari et al., 2022). Rapid treatment is necessary. The health-care provider will attempt to reposition the uterus by placing a fist in the uterus and keeping it in that position until the uterus contracts. Uterotonics will be administered once the uterus is returned to the proper position. The nurse will monitor for worsening signs of shock. Figure 19.22 illustrates a uterine inversion.