5.4 Language in Early Childhood

Phonology

Recall that phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies the sound systems of languages, the way sounds are organized and combined to form words and sentences. This is done by analyzing phonemes, or the smallest units of sound. For example, the word "bit" has three phonemes: /b/ /i/ /t/. Native speakers of a language distinguish between different phonemes and use them correctly in words and sentences, even though they may not be consciously aware of the phonetic rules governing their use. Phonological awareness, or the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds of language (like /b/i/t/), is a key component of reading and writing skills.

Some languages have more phonemes than others or use tone or pitch to differentiate between words. For instance, the fact that, in American English, we pronounce “bass” differently to mean a deep sound and a type of fish is just one example of the way phonemes differentiate the meaning of otherwise similar words. Language development and linguistics researchers have identified around 800 phonemes among various languages (Kuhl, 2015). Studying phonology can provide insights into the features of different languages, the way humans acquire language, and the way language is processed by the brain.

Morphemes

Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have meaning. They include prefixes, suffixes, and roots, the building blocks of words, and they can also be isolated words. For example, the word “unfillable” combines three morphemes, each with its own unique meaning: Un + fill + able (un- meaning “not”, fill as in the verb, and -able meaning “capable of”). Morphemes are integral to spoken, written, and signed languages.

As children expand their implicit understanding of morphological structures, they enhance their vocabulary and comprehension skills. That is, as they begin to recognize the way morphemes combine and alter words, they become able to decode unfamiliar words. In turn, their reading and communication skills improve. Morphological awareness not only aids in vocabulary development but also plays an important role in syntactic and semantic understanding, which contribute to overall language learning proficiency

Semantics

The study of the meaning of words and sentences in a language is called semantics. It looks at the way words are used and understood in different contexts. Part of learning language is recognizing these diverse contextual meanings. For example, the word "sick" can refer to being ill or, in modern slang, being awesome. As children gain an understanding of diverse meanings of words and phrases, they are able to more easily navigate social and academic environments.

Syntax

The set of rules that govern the way we combine words to form phrases, clauses, and sentences in a language is called syntax. It orders the structure of sentences and the ways in which words are arranged and changed to convey meaning, such as through subject-verb agreement, verb tense, the use of modifying adjectives and adverbs, and word order. For example, the standard word order in English is subject-verb-object. English also generally places adverbs and adjectives before the words they modify, as in “I really like your blue dress.” Spanish, however, puts the modifiers after, as in, “Me gusta mucho tu vestido azul” (“I like very much your dress blue.”).

Syntax also helps us analyze variations in sentence structure. We can see how the arrangement of words influences the interpretation when we change the sentence “The child ate a banana” to "The banana ate a child.” When children learn more vocabulary and improve their language skills, they use more diverse syntax and improve their communication skills.

Grammar

While syntax governs the order of words, it is grammar that enables us to communicate accurately. Grammar codifies a language’s rules of usage, pronunciation, tone, and word order, encompassing both syntax and morphology. Our mastery of grammar goes through an extraordinary transformation in early childhood. Children transition from overextensions of grammar rules, also known as overregularization, to greater mastery of grammar rules. For example, they transition from grammar mistakes like “I runned with my dog” to the correct “I ran with my dog.”

Grammar consists of rules, but it is also shaped by the social and cultural context in which it is used, reflecting regional dialects, SES, and cultural norms. For example, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) has a distinct grammar that differs from standard English, including unique features such as the use of double negatives (Kurinec & Weaver, 2021; Rickford et al., 2015). Research suggests that AAVE is often associated with negative stereotypes and biases as early as preschool age (Harris & Schroeder, 2013). These biases can have negative implications for the cognitive, social, and academic outcomes of Black children who speak it, and for Black adults in encounters with law enforcement, the legal system overall, and the workplace (Kurinec & Weaver, 2021). It is essential to address these biases early through education and awareness-raising efforts.

Children also tend to seamlessly engage in code-switching, the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties based on their dialogue partner or the setting of the conversation. They can naturally switch between English and their family’s native language at home, and then speak English with teachers and friends at school. This linguistic phenomenon is more prevalent in multilingual or multicultural environments and can occur for social, cultural, or situational reasons. Code-switching allows children to be comfortable in different social contexts and convey subtle meanings, cultural affiliations, or emotions.

Pragmatics

In contrast to semantics, pragmatics is the way we use language in different situations, what we intend when communicating, and the cultural norms that govern language use. For example, “Thanks” can sound sincere, sarcastic, or even flirtatious depending on tone and body language. A child’s use of words and expression is likely to be different during a classroom lesson than on the playground (Figure 5.20).

Figure 5.20 Children learn to communicate in diverse ways depending on culture, social norms, situational attributes, and overall context. Their communication style is likely to differ between the (a) classroom and the (b) playground. (credit a: modification of work “05202013 - Savoy Elementary School Visit 66” by U.S. Department of Education/Flickr, CC BY 2.0; credit b: modification of work “Blanchard Recess_4975c” by James Emery/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

In early childhood, the development of pragmatic skills includes learning how to take turns in conversation, ask and answer questions, and use eye contact and body language to convey meaning. Even young children adjust their language based on the social context and the people they are communicating with, as in code-switching and the use of different meanings for words like “sick.” Soon they will develop the pragmatic skills to persuade, negotiate, and perhaps manipulate. As cognition becomes less egocentric, children take the listener's perspective into account and might change their intonation and emphasis to clarify meaning.

Language as a Window into Cognition

Language is often described as a window into cognition because it provides insight into the underlying cognitive processes that allow us to think, reason, and solve problems (Federmeier et al., 2020). For example, language allows us to form categories, make predictions, and infer relationships between words and concepts. These processes are integral to cognitive development.

Studying language development also provides insight into cognitive deficits and developmental delays. For instance, children with language impairments may exhibit difficulty with grammar and syntax, often initial indicators of cognitive deficits (McGregor et al., 2022). Similarly, children with autism spectrum disorder often struggle with language development and social communication. Their difficulties in processing social cues and inferring meaning in social interactions suggest that cognition plays a role in language and socialization.

Language as a Tool for Communication and Learning

Of course, language is also a powerful tool for communication. It allows us to express needs, share experiences, and form social connections. It helps children develop theory of mind and perspective-taking. Moreover, language use and exposure play significant roles in shaping children’s psychosocial development. For example, positive and responsive language interactions between parents and children are associated with better psychosocial outcomes, such as increased empathy and better social skills (Frosch & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2021). Language-rich environments promote better cognitive outcomes in children too, including a more robust foundation to acquire reading and writing skills, essential components of academic success (Logan et al., 2019).

Research has attempted to both confirm and broaden our knowledge of family talking behaviors that lead to language and communication differences. Gilkerson et al. (2017) used automated recorders to collect speech data from children and their caregivers and found significant variability within and across SES groups, primarily based on mother’s education level. While there was a wide range of vocabulary skills within both high- and low-SES families, SES was a predictive factor for the way families interact. Children of mothers with a higher education talk more, have more adult-child interactions, and are more engaged overall. Because early language skills are strong predictors of a child’s later academic success, these results offer important implications for improving language development for all children (Durham et al., 2007).

These conclusions also indicate the need for early interventions designed for at-risk children. Those who are raised in impoverished language environments can benefit from home-visit programs, high-quality childcare, and pre-kindergarten programs (Figure 5.21). These have been shown to improve early language exposure and lead to better long-term outcomes for children (Bierman et al., 2018; Vernon-Feagans, & Bratsch-Hines, 2013; Williams et al., 2020). The simple understanding that talking more improves outcomes has potential long-term benefits.

Figure 5.21 More states are recognizing the value of pre-kindergarten programs, which can have a beneficial impact on language development in early childhood (Friedman-Krauss et al., 2024). (credit: modification of work "Figure 4" by Friedman-Krauss et al./National Institution for Early Education Research, Public Domain)

Language Development in Deaf Children

Children who do not receive any language input during their first two years of life, whether due to deafness or other factors, run the risk of never achieving language fluency (Hall et al., 2019; Humphries et al., 2012). Therefore, children born deaf or hard of hearing are often at risk of delays in language acquisition and cognitive development if they do not receive appropriate support.

Exposing deaf children to sign language early is crucial because it provides them both a visual and tactile form of communication to interact with their environment (Hall, 2018). American Sign Language (ASL), the most widely used sign language in the United States, is recognized as a natural language with its own grammar and syntax (Figure 5.22). ASL and other sign languages have the same defining features of language discussed previously:

• There is a distinct grammatical structure, including rules governing word order and sentence construction.
• Sign languages have similar phonological components, including morphemes and phonemes. These may be conveyed through specific handshapes, movements, and facial expressions.
• Sign languages have their own syntax, governing the arrangement of signs to convey meaning.
• Symbols and signs convey semantics in a manner like that of voiced languages.
• As in voiced languages, pragmatic principles exist for different social and cultural contexts.

Regardless of which languages we use, our brains process linguistic information in a comparable manner.

Figure 5.22 Signing is as unique as any voiced language. (credit: “Learning sign language” by David Fulmer/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

Technology has introduced new ways for deaf children to learn language through devices like cochlear implants and hearing aids that can offer some auditory input. Speech therapy can also help children develop spoken language skills. Research does not necessarily support emphasizing deaf children use voice as the primary means of communication. Only a small fraction of children (2–3 out of every 1,000) are born deaf, more than 90 percent of whom are born to hearing parents. Debate is ongoing over whether deaf children learn to speak because it benefits them or because it benefits others (Hall et al., 2019; Humphries et al., 2022; Lieberman et al., 2022). Ultimately, early and consistent support from caregivers, educators, and medical professionals is the key to successful language learning in deaf children. With resources and guidance, they can develop strong language skills like any other child, and children of diverse abilities may all benefit from language learning resources, including sign language and other nonverbal communication forms.

Development in Multilingual Environments

Children who grow up in multilingual environments learn and use multiple languages naturally. The process of acquiring multiple languages is not necessarily the same as acquiring a single language. Children may go through periods of mixing languages or may initially have a smaller vocabulary in each language. However, with continued exposure and practice, they easily become fluent in multiple languages.

Moreover, exposure to multiple languages in childhood is an experience-dependent process that may shape cognitive outcomes, including improved executive attention and minor differences in the way the brain processes language (Bialystok, 2017). There is also some evidence of a lifelong cognitive advantage, including greater neural sophistication and a delay in the onset of some dementias (Berkes & Bialystok, 2022; Liu & Wu, 2021). Children who speak multiple languages are also often better able to communicate and connect with people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

There are not necessarily any best practices for raising a multilingual child. Some multilingual families choose to have different adults speak in specific languages, while in others every adult uses a mix of languages. Both approaches are successful, and early exposure provides the greatest advantage. Whatever approach is taken, it is essential to provide regular exposure and support for each language. Families in many countries, including the United States, Italy, and Indonesia, may also choose to enroll children in bilingual early childhood education programs, which may improve robust language development for children (Huang et al., 2023; Leotta, 2023; Chang, 2024).