12.4 Contexts: School and Work Settings in Early Adulthood

Post-High School Pathways

College enrollment rates are higher for the most recent cohorts of young adults than for previous generations, but since 2010 enrollment has remained relatively steady, with about 40 percent of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolling in a 2- or 4-year institution (National Center for Education Statistics, 2024). That means that for more than half of young adults, college is not the pathway. Other pathways include starting a family, undertaking vocational training, accepting full-time employment, enlisting in military service, and signing on for volunteer work or political activism (Figure 12.19).

Figure 12.19 Vocational training can provide specific instruction and hands-on practice to prepare for careers in a variety of trades and technical fields. (Credit: Modification of "U.S. Navy Sailor welds pipe aboard aircraft carrier" by Official U.S. Navy Page/Flickr CC BY 2.0)

Many young adults credit community service opportunities with sparking their interest in a particular field and providing a purpose-driven career pathway; however, most volunteerism and civic engagement among young adults occurs in sporadic episodes (Motulsky et al., 2020). Most young adults express interest in community service but do not regularly participate, citing a lack of time given the increasing responsibilities of early adulthood (Swartz et al., 2017; Wray-Lake et al., 2020). Female and Black young adults are most likely to volunteer their time for community service, but overall community service participation rates decline following high school. Political engagement and election participation increase, however, particularly among Black young adults (Wray-Lake et al., 2020). (Figure 12.20).

Figure 12.20 Community service opportunities can help young adults develop valuable professional skills such as communication and teamwork. Volunteering may also spark interest in related vocational paths such as (a) environmental science or (b) culinary arts. (Credit (a): Modification of "JR volunteers" by Virginia State Parks/Flickr CC BY 2.0; (b): Modification of "Fulbright MENA Re-Entry Workshop Community Service - DC Central Kitchen" by Exchanges Photos/Flickr Public Domain)

The Influence of Context

Many factors interact to influence the educational and vocational pathways young adults choose after high school, including family and community background, socioeconomic status, gender, and race. Those from rural areas often face hard choices, because they are less likely to find many education and employment opportunities close to home (Fenton et al., 2023). Half of all first-year college students at public institutions come from within 50 miles of campus, but education deserts, communities with no nearby college or university, are more common in rural areas (Stolzenberg et al., 2020; Hillman & Weichman, 2016).

Young adults from families with low socioeconomic status (SES) see the greatest earnings benefits from a college degree. But parents and community members who did not attend college may be less likely to see college as a realistic or valuable choice, and rural young adults are less likely to be encouraged by their families and teachers to prepare for or pursue a college education (Healy, 2017; Byun et al., 2012). Many young adults in rural communities choose instead to seek employment in local jobs that are more familiar, accessible, and close to family, rather than investing time and money in an advanced education or professional relocation that may not yield worthwhile occupational results (Corbett, 2016). Many also cite obligations to family or family property that keep them attached to their hometown (Wilson et al., 2017; Massey, 2020).

Young adults who remain in their hometown communities are more likely to experience earlier transitions to other adult roles such as full-time employment, marriage, and parenthood (Fenton, 2023). While these early transitions are predictive of decreased substance use, increased financial independence, and life satisfaction for these young adults, early marriage and parenthood decrease the likelihood of college attendance or degree completion and predict a lower household income (Maggs et al., 2012; Monaghan, 2020). Economic pressures have also made it difficult for many rural areas to provide living conditions of sufficient quality for young adults to stay or to return home after college (Motulsky et al., 2020). School closures, decreased property values, poverty, unemployment, low wages, and a scarcity of health care providers have resulted in a declining rural population in the United States, driven in part by the exodus of young people from those areas and toward urban or suburban areas that offer more opportunities (Economic Research Service, 2017; Massey, 2020). Those who do leave rural hometowns to advance their education or career are more likely to come from White families with higher SES and higher levels of education (Brand & Xie, 2010; Brooks & Redlin, 2009; Carr & Kefalas, 2011).

Race and ethnicity also predict different decisions regarding employment and education (Figure 12.21). Family care priorities, financial obstacles, and discrimination can dissuade young Black and Hispanic adults with high occupational aspirations from relocating to pursue those goals (Brooks & Redlin, 2009). Black young adults are also more likely to feel disconnected from settings that might provide developmental pathways, such as school, the workplace, and the military (Fenton et al, 2023), in part because they are more likely than White young adults to face interpersonal and institutional discrimination there (Hope et al., 2015). However, Black young adults are more likely than their White socioeconomic peers to complete a college degree (Karlson, 2019).

Figure 12.21 Race and ethnicity can predict decisions about employment and education. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

The intersection of race and gender identity also produces variation in trajectories for young adults. Partly because young men anticipate better prospects for stable well-paying jobs without a college education in stereotypically masculine vocations such as plumbing or construction, fewer men attend college than women. This gender gap is narrower among Black young adults (37 percent of men attend college vs. 44 percent of women) than among White (40 percent of men, 50 percent of women) and Hispanic young adults (33 percent of men, 44 percent of women) (Fry, 2023). White and minority young adults enlist in the military at comparable rates, but women are much less likely to do so than men (Barosso, 2019). White and Hispanic young adults are more likely to marry earlier than Black or Asian young adults, but Black women are more likely than White women to work, be the primary breadwinner in their household, and have caregiving responsibilities (Payne, 2019; Weller, 2019).

The transition into adulthood can be particularly challenging for young adults with disabilities. Interviews with young people with a range of disabilities, their caregivers, and service providers reveal several barriers to participating in typical adult life (Stewart et al., 2014; ALSO, 2023):

• Pace: Life for emerging adults is influenced not only by a social clock, but also by busy schedules and fast-paced interactions that can leave little room for those who need a flexible pace to accomplish their goals.
• Complexity and Literacy: Changing procedures and jargon-filled instructions can be confusing for those trying to accomplish even everyday tasks, such as reading a recipe or putting gas in the car.
• Stigma: In a culture that values independence in early adulthood, it can be difficult for a young adult with disabilities to ask for help and support. It is especially challenging to overcome “either-or” thinking that assumes someone either can do everything by themselves or needs constant supervision, with no gray area in between.

Many families are understandably reluctant to give their young adults more autonomy within such an uncertain landscape. Young adults with disabilities were often more willing than their families to pave their own way, despite the lack of clear directions or guaranteed outcomes, and providing opportunities for young adults with disabilities to exercise more independence can also reduce stigma within the community. The success of these young people requires early, careful, and customized planning that promotes collaboration among available disability services and the family, and that accommodates the strengths and limitations of the young adult within their desired future (Stewart et al., 2014). An individualized and holistic approach can help facilitate the development of life skills, opportunities, and support that will improve a young adult’s quality of life in domains such as independent living, employment, education, social life, and community involvement (ALSO, 2023).

College Considerations

College is not the only or best path for everyone, and for those who choose it, it not a one-size-fits-all experience. For first-generation college-students, the transition to college life can be a culture shock. While many such students begin college with pride and determination, the environment can feel uncomfortable or overwhelming as they navigate unfamiliar social networks and intimidating institutional policies and procedures (Motulsky et al., 2020). After high school, some students choose to do a gap year, to gain valuable personal and professional development before beginning college, through participation in immersive experiences such as community service work. Other students combine military service and college education by joining the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) (Figure 12.22). In exchange for an 8-year service commitment following graduation, the ROTC offers scholarships to adults interested in gaining military service training while enrolled as full-time college students (U.S. Army, n.d.). Next we look at pathways through college and outcomes for those who enroll.

Figure 12.22 Some students combine military service and college education by joining the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC). (Credit: Modification of "Cadets with the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps run through a confidence course" by Pvt. Brianne Patterson, United States Army, Public Domain)

Pathways

Statistics show significant differences in how and when young adults complete their undergraduate degrees (Monaghan, 2020). These differences often result from socioeconomic inequities that can present delays and interruptions for students with lower SES. Often driven by the need to find affordable, local, and part-time enrollment options, they are more likely to begin their college education as part-time students at a community college, a pathway associated with a lower likelihood of degree completion than full-time enrollment at a 4-year institution. Students with lower SES are also more likely to be employed full-time, get married, and become parents during emerging adulthood, which often necessitates part-time enrollment and lowers degree completion rates, especially for women.

Research on college enrollment patterns identified two primary groups of students, labeled rapid completers (38 percent) and marginal college goers (43 percent). Rapid completers enrolled and completed their degree before age 25. They were more likely to come from college-educated families with high SES. They also had the highest employment rates (part time during college and full time after graduation), with a median annual income of $94,000 during adulthood. Marginal college-goers attended part time and for short spells, with a 6 percent degree-completion rate during early adulthood. They were more likely to be employed full time and married during their college enrollment (Monaghan, 2020). Working part-time is associated with achieving better college outcomes, including greater campus engagement, leadership and skill development, and social networking, especially for first-generation students (Pike et al., 2008; Salisbury et al., 2012; Nuñez & Sansone, 2016). However, working more than 20 hours a week is associated with a lower GPA and lower college completion rate (Davis, 2023).

Outcomes

Young adults who enroll in college usually do so to get better job opportunities, including higher-earning and purpose-driven careers (Eagen et al., 2013; Johnson, 2023). If higher earnings are the goal, data suggest that completing an internship or study abroad experience during college is predictive of higher earnings in the workplace (Wolniak & Engberg, 2019). And while most graduates believe their education was a good investment, if they had to do it over, more than half say they would choose a different major to be better positioned to pursue their passions and better job opportunities (Johnson, 2023). Switching majors (as 30 percent of students do) can increase a student’s likelihood of graduating, especially when done within three years of starting and with the help of campus career resources (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017; Crawford Ciglar, 2020).

The benefits of choosing the “right” major continue after college: Adult job satisfaction and commitment have been found to be predicted by perceived alignment between college major and field of employment (Wolniak & Pascarella, 2005; Wolniack & Engberg, 2019), regardless of income. However, even if a graduate enters the workforce in a career exactly matching their major, chances are they won’t stay in that specific field over the course of their career (Roberts Wesleyan College, 2020; Fox, 2022).

Career Preparation and Readiness

According to career expert Vicki Salemi, the key to professional readiness is to develop “transferable skills,” including communication, problem-solving, and collaboration, and to emphasize those skills on your resume and in interviews (Fox, 2022). Employers say they prefer applicants with “active and applied learning experiences,” which apprenticeships or internships can provide (Flaherty, 2021). Two-thirds of employers also say they want adaptable employees with good communication skills, which can be developed as a result of teamwork opportunities in military service or study-abroad experiences. If you are looking for a career that provides opportunity to learn new skills, face new challenges, and serve a purpose to others, completing community-service or civic engagement experiences is the best predictor of those outcomes. Such experiences also develop problem-solving skills, teamwork, and work ethic, among the top abilities employers seek (Gray, 2024).

Career Goals

A cross-cultural meta-analysis of the priorities influencing the career goals of young people found that they were influenced by extrinsic factors (such as the potential income or accessibility of the job), intrinsic motivations (such as personal interest or opportunities for professional development), and interpersonal influences (such as social responsibility or family influence). Those coming from families with more collectivistic cultural values, such as in India and South Korea, were more likely to be influenced by extrinsic factors and interpersonal influences. U.S. job seekers, on the other hand, were more likely to be guided by intrinsic motivations (Akosah-Twumasi et al., 2018).

Developing a vocational identity in early adulthood requires exploring the way our career goals relate to aspects of our self, such as interests, values, and abilities. Engaging in this exploration is predictive of job motivation, performance, and flexibility (Colquitt et al., 2000; Rowald, 2007; Kim et al., 2023). Research on college students shows a general increase in exploration and commitment during emerging adulthood (Kim et al., 2023), facilitated by aspects of personality such as conscientiousness, openness, internal locus of control, and self-efficacy (Lee et al., 2023). Young adults who are more satisfied with their career trajectories credit supportive mentorship from family, educators, and work colleagues, as well as their own proactive and strategic career exploration during school and in early job experiences (Swartz et al., 2017) (Figure 12.23).

Figure 12.23 For young adults, mentorship can be an important part of developing satisfaction with their career choices. (Credit: Modification of "Women In Tech - 77" by WOCInTech Chat/Flickr CC BY 2.0)

Like other social developments, a young adult’s career trajectory reflects the interaction of context and behavior. According to Donald Super’s lifespan theory of career development, our career trajectory starts as early as childhood and evolves throughout adulthood as it interacts with other developmental roles and tasks (Super, 1990). In adolescence and emerging adulthood, the focus is exploration. However, in early to middle adulthood, the priority shifts to establishment, which includes committing to and advancing within a career in ways that consider the relative value of other roles such as family, peers, school, and the community.

For some young adults, the career establishment process may focus more on taking on more responsibility and advancing within successful or “good” jobs or careers. Young adults describe “good” jobs as full-time and stable positions that are personally rewarding, allow autonomy and responsibility at work, present opportunities to serve or mentor others, and offer generous employee compensation and benefits (such as work from home, health care, and vacation time). Those who find themselves in “bad” jobs may be more focused on changing jobs or careers, because their work offers insufficient compensation and benefits, inadequate training, little feeling of accomplishment or empowerment, and unsafe, unfair, or degrading conditions (Swartz et al., 2017).

As with other trajectories, the context from which people emerge into adulthood has a big influence on the likelihood of finding themselves in a good or bad job. Those in good jobs were more likely to come from privileged socioeconomic backgrounds, which provided support for advanced education and professional development experiences like study abroad or unpaid internships and safety nets to buffer them against setbacks. However, young adults also report behaviors that may have increased the likelihood of success in career establishment. For example, those in good jobs often approached their career with a more developmental and strategic mindset, using entry-level jobs to develop skills, expertise, and professional connections that helped them advance to more satisfying and challenging positions.

Young adults in bad jobs are more likely to develop a learned helplessness, which undermines a sense of direction or agency in their career development (Swartz et al., 2017). Often overwhelmed by the responsibilities of full-time job, education, and family, these adults dream of better work but are often unsure how to realize those dreams and lack available tools, support, or mentorship to guide them.

Work-Life Balance

As young adults take on more responsibilities, they must balance obligations at work or school with other priorities. Finding this balance does not require giving equal attention to everything or “doing it all.” Rather, work-life balance is the arrangement that allows a person to spend the desired amount of time on each of the activities that matter to them, such as work, leisure, education, and caregiving (Dang et al., 2024). The amount of time allocated to various life activities may be unequal and change according to needs. Writer McAlary describes the value of seeing adult life balance as a scale that can tilt toward the activities that most need our attention, including as our priorities change over time (McAlary, 2017). College students report typically spending the most time per week (approximately 30 hours) on educational activities like attending class and studying. And while frequently exhibiting signs of burnout and exhaustion, young adults, including those who are caregivers for aging parents or younger siblings, report achieving a moderate level of balance between work and other priorities (Dang et al., 2024). Young adults with an internal locus of control are more likely to use active, problem-focused coping strategies to manage a broad range of developmental challenges, which can result in higher self-esteem, feelings of competence, and life satisfaction. (Kurtović et al., 2018; Singh & Choudhry, 2014). Some researchers have noted that more recently young adults are more willing to advocate for their work-life balance, screening jobs for or directly asking their employers to provide increased flexibility such as remote work, flexible hours, and time for self-care (Lee & Diller, 2023).

Life balance in early adulthood relates not only to whether a person is able to satisfactorily divide their time among adult responsibilities, but also to the way they prioritize the sequence of developmental challenges. So far in this chapter, we have addressed the early adulthood challenges to develop the self, identity, relationships with friends and family, and education and vocational pathways. In the last section, we will discuss how young adults’ romantic relationships grow within the context of these other changes.