11.1 Becoming an Adult

Five Challenges

According to Jeffrey Arnett (2010), people face five challenges during emerging adulthood. Some of these challenges may first arise in adolescence, but Arnett believes they are finally resolved in emerging adulthood (Arnett et al., 2014) (Figure 11.2).

Figure 11.2 Arnett’s theory of emerging adulthood proposes five challenges to resolve during this time in our lives. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

Let’s examine each of these.

• Identity exploration. In emerging adulthood, people think more seriously about identity exploration (begun in adolescence) (Arnett et al., 2014). They attempt to learn who they are at work and within relationships, and they solidify their core beliefs and values.
• Instability. Emerging adulthood is full of change, partly due to identity exploration, but also to factors such as being “last hired, first fired” at a job.
• Self-focus. With fewer obligations to others, emerging adults may be better able to explore not just who they are, but how to become self-sufficient.
• Feeling in-between. Though legally adults, emerging adults might not yet be comfortable making some decisions on their own and thus consult with family and friends when faced with important choices.
• Being in an age of possibilities. Emerging adults can create their own stories, perhaps leaving behind uncomfortable or unhealthy aspects of their early lives. Thus, they often report feeling optimistic about what lies ahead (Arnett et al., 2014).

Four Identity Statuses

As adolescents enter adulthood, they are confronted with new opportunities to explore and consolidate their identity. James Marcia believed people experienced different stages in their quest for identity, based on their level of exploration and commitment (Erikson et al., 2020; Marcia, 1966; Kolbert et al., 2021). These stages are identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. A person can move through them in various orders or even skip some. It’s also possible for different aspects of someone’s identity to be in different stages at once.

What does Marcia mean by identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement?

• Identity Diffusion. The individual has not yet explored options, realized they have choices, or committed to any. They may be aware of upcoming elections, but have not chosen their preferred candidate or perhaps even decided whether to vote.
• Identity Foreclosure. The individual has committed to some goals, values, or roles but without any exploration. They conform to the choices of their peers or their parents, such as a person entering an arranged marriage without actively considering whether the partner is a good match.
• Identity Moratorium. The individual is actively exploring options and may be ready to commit to some values, but has not yet fully committed to their choices. A college student who changes their major several times may be experiencing identity moratorium.
• Identity Achievement. The individual has actively explored possibilities and has now made a commitment to them, meaning they have chosen an identity. A person who has read about different faiths and chosen one to follow has attained identity achievement.

Identity achievement contributes to aspects of psychosocial well-being, including high self-esteem, conscientiousness, maturity, and problem-focused coping (Oleś, 2016). However, some of the other stages may be appropriate under certain circumstances. For example, identity diffusion may be a natural starting point for people who have little experience (Marcia, 1966; Waterman, 1982). Cultural and contextual factors may also affect the search for identity, meaning that identity achievement may not be feasible or ideal for everyone.

Socioeconomic Status

People seem to experience emerging adulthood regardless of SES, but differently (Arnett, 2016; Galambos & Martinez, 2007; Landberg et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2017). For example, periodic economic instability in the country or region, might mean that young adults are likely to work on short-term contracts or in positions that could be terminated at any time (Arnett et al., 2014; Landberg et al., 2019), consistent with Arnett’s concept of instability. People from lower SES are more likely to have a negative outlook on life, and therefore be less likely to feel optimistic and see their life as full of possibilities. They may also lack opportunities for identity exploration due to life events such as being their family’s sole wage earner (Landberg et al., 2019). Viewed in the terms of Marcia’s theory, economic conditions may limit opportunities for both exploration and commitment (Beckert et al., 2020) or cause a person to prioritize gaining financial stability over traditional markers of identity achievement that typically occur in early adulthood stages of development (Bowen et al., 2021). Some emerging adults who desire higher education may not have the ability to afford it and are therefore limited to choosing jobs based on financial needs rather than prioritizing personally fulfilling careers (Haider & von Stumm, 2022; Landberg et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2017). Still others may not find higher education to be necessary to finding a career that meets their needs and goals. Typical early adulthood experiences, such as moving out to live independently, gaining employment, forming new relationships with friends and romantic partners, and pursuing other goals such as academic or technical skill developments may be delayed or even skipped where financial restrictions or family needs are prioritized for these young adults.

Culture

In societies with an individualistic cultural orientation, identity is often based on achieving independence; cultures that are more collectivistic emphasize creating connections within family and communities as important aspects of identity (Muttaqin, 2020). However, this may be affected by globalization. Although Japan is traditionally collectivistic, the current cohort of young adults is more influenced by individualistic values and likely to prioritize independence and finding personally satisfying careers (Arnett et al., 2014; Sugimura, 2020; Sugimura et al., 2023), consistent with the theme of identity exploration and being self-focused. It’s also worth noting that globalization’s influence isn’t identical across contexts. For example, some immigrants assimilate into the culture of their new home country, while others identify more strongly with the culture of their country of origin (Maehler et al., 2019) (Figure 11.3). Variations in acculturation may thus affect the experience of emerging adulthood for immigrants.

Figure 11.3 Globalization provides opportunities for people from different cultures to interact with and influence each other, such as this meeting of young adults at the 2016 Global Entrepreneurship Summit. (credit: modification of work “Global Entrepreneurship Summit 2016” by GES 2016/Flickr, Public Domain)

The opportunities a culture offers its members and subgroups may also matter. A review of literature relating to the experiences of Black individuals during emerging adulthood (Hope et al., 2015) found that experiencing discrimination interrupted their exploration of self and career. Different racial and ethnic groups within a geographic location may not have the same access to early adulthood if discrimination is present. When people have multiple cultural affiliations, identity formation may be influenced by both cultures, though not necessarily equally. For example, a study of Chinese Canadian teenagers, all of whom were children of immigrant parents and 80 percent of whom were Chinese-born themselves, indicated that teenage girls tended to report more tension between their Canadian and Chinese identities than teenage boys. The researchers attributed these differences to the ways the Chinese and Canadian cultures regarded gender. Canadian culture tends to emphasize gender equality and independence for all, but in Chinese culture, male children are more prized and given more freedom than female children. In other words, Chinese Canadian teenage boys benefited from being part of two cultures that encouraged freedom for them, while their girl peers had to try to reconcile the conflicting messages of these cultures (Quan et al., 2022).

Intersections and Contexts

DACA and Emerging Adulthood

The experience of emerging adulthood can depend on factors such as SES and culture. Another possible influence is immigration status. Being an immigrant, particularly with undocumented status, can limit opportunities to explore options and choose a meaningful path in life due to language barriers, financial difficulties, fear of deportation, and inability to work legally. However, public policy initiatives may be able to address some of these challenges.

The Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) relief program was enacted in 2012 to protect undocumented immigrants who were brought to the United States before the age of 16 (and before 2007). President Barack Obama described it as being for “young people who study in our schools, play in our neighborhoods, are friends with our kids, and pledge allegiance to our flag” (Connor, 2023, para. 1; Key Facts, 2023). DACA granted a two-year work authorization to prevent young people from being deported (Key Facts, 2023). More than 835,000 people were protected during the decade DACA was in effect, and although the program is no longer accepting people, about 580,000 people are still in it (Connor, 2023; Key Facts, 2023; Wong et al., 2023) (Figure 11.4).

Figure 11.4 The DACA program provided many people with opportunities. (credit: “DACA-16” by Susan Ruggles/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

The DACA program is relevant here because of its connection to the developmental tasks of emerging adulthood. Many DACA recipients have participated in emerging adulthood tasks such as attending college, starting careers, and having families, and 7 of 10 indicated that DACA allowed them to get schooling and achieve degrees they would not have been able to attain otherwise (Wong et al., 2023). Additionally, DACA recipients over 25 have a 91 percent employment rate, with many employed in professions considered “essential”, such as health care and education. Their employment status and income allow them to attain material markers of adulthood such as cars, homes, and health insurance (Svajlenka & Truong, 2021) as well as financially support themselves and their families.

Specific cultural practices may also affect the experience of early adulthood. For example, early marriage, particularly before age 15, is associated with stunted identity development for several reasons: it abruptly imposes adult roles and responsibilities on the individual, thus representing a loss of the “emerging” aspect of adulthood, limits decision-making, and imposes societal norms of gender roles onto people regardless of their individual views or goals (Abera et al., 2020; Callaghan et al., 2015). However, this gets complicated because many countries that encourage child marriage also have high rates of poverty and school dropouts (Burgess et al., 2022), so it’s hard to know whether any differences are caused by economic factors, sociocultural views, or a combination.