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College Physics

4.7 Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

College Physics4.7 Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
    1. Introduction to Science and the Realm of Physics, Physical Quantities, and Units
    2. 1.1 Physics: An Introduction
    3. 1.2 Physical Quantities and Units
    4. 1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures
    5. 1.4 Approximation
    6. Glossary
    7. Section Summary
    8. Conceptual Questions
    9. Problems & Exercises
  3. 2 Kinematics
    1. Introduction to One-Dimensional Kinematics
    2. 2.1 Displacement
    3. 2.2 Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems
    4. 2.3 Time, Velocity, and Speed
    5. 2.4 Acceleration
    6. 2.5 Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension
    7. 2.6 Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics
    8. 2.7 Falling Objects
    9. 2.8 Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  4. 3 Two-Dimensional Kinematics
    1. Introduction to Two-Dimensional Kinematics
    2. 3.1 Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction
    3. 3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods
    4. 3.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods
    5. 3.4 Projectile Motion
    6. 3.5 Addition of Velocities
    7. Glossary
    8. Section Summary
    9. Conceptual Questions
    10. Problems & Exercises
  5. 4 Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion
    1. Introduction to Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion
    2. 4.1 Development of Force Concept
    3. 4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia
    4. 4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System
    5. 4.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces
    6. 4.5 Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces
    7. 4.6 Problem-Solving Strategies
    8. 4.7 Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
    9. 4.8 Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  6. 5 Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity
    1. Introduction: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
    2. 5.1 Friction
    3. 5.2 Drag Forces
    4. 5.3 Elasticity: Stress and Strain
    5. Glossary
    6. Section Summary
    7. Conceptual Questions
    8. Problems & Exercises
  7. 6 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
    1. Introduction to Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
    2. 6.1 Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity
    3. 6.2 Centripetal Acceleration
    4. 6.3 Centripetal Force
    5. 6.4 Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force
    6. 6.5 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
    7. 6.6 Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  8. 7 Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
    1. Introduction to Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
    2. 7.1 Work: The Scientific Definition
    3. 7.2 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem
    4. 7.3 Gravitational Potential Energy
    5. 7.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
    6. 7.5 Nonconservative Forces
    7. 7.6 Conservation of Energy
    8. 7.7 Power
    9. 7.8 Work, Energy, and Power in Humans
    10. 7.9 World Energy Use
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  9. 8 Linear Momentum and Collisions
    1. Introduction to Linear Momentum and Collisions
    2. 8.1 Linear Momentum and Force
    3. 8.2 Impulse
    4. 8.3 Conservation of Momentum
    5. 8.4 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
    6. 8.5 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension
    7. 8.6 Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions
    8. 8.7 Introduction to Rocket Propulsion
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  10. 9 Statics and Torque
    1. Introduction to Statics and Torque
    2. 9.1 The First Condition for Equilibrium
    3. 9.2 The Second Condition for Equilibrium
    4. 9.3 Stability
    5. 9.4 Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies
    6. 9.5 Simple Machines
    7. 9.6 Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  11. 10 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
    1. Introduction to Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
    2. 10.1 Angular Acceleration
    3. 10.2 Kinematics of Rotational Motion
    4. 10.3 Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia
    5. 10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited
    6. 10.5 Angular Momentum and Its Conservation
    7. 10.6 Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions
    8. 10.7 Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  12. 11 Fluid Statics
    1. Introduction to Fluid Statics
    2. 11.1 What Is a Fluid?
    3. 11.2 Density
    4. 11.3 Pressure
    5. 11.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
    6. 11.5 Pascal’s Principle
    7. 11.6 Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement
    8. 11.7 Archimedes’ Principle
    9. 11.8 Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action
    10. 11.9 Pressures in the Body
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  13. 12 Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
    1. Introduction to Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
    2. 12.1 Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity
    3. 12.2 Bernoulli’s Equation
    4. 12.3 The Most General Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
    5. 12.4 Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law
    6. 12.5 The Onset of Turbulence
    7. 12.6 Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid
    8. 12.7 Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  14. 13 Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
    1. Introduction to Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
    2. 13.1 Temperature
    3. 13.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
    4. 13.3 The Ideal Gas Law
    5. 13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature
    6. 13.5 Phase Changes
    7. 13.6 Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  15. 14 Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
    1. Introduction to Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
    2. 14.1 Heat
    3. 14.2 Temperature Change and Heat Capacity
    4. 14.3 Phase Change and Latent Heat
    5. 14.4 Heat Transfer Methods
    6. 14.5 Conduction
    7. 14.6 Convection
    8. 14.7 Radiation
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  16. 15 Thermodynamics
    1. Introduction to Thermodynamics
    2. 15.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
    3. 15.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes
    4. 15.3 Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency
    5. 15.4 Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated
    6. 15.5 Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
    7. 15.6 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy
    8. 15.7 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Underlying Explanation
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  17. 16 Oscillatory Motion and Waves
    1. Introduction to Oscillatory Motion and Waves
    2. 16.1 Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited
    3. 16.2 Period and Frequency in Oscillations
    4. 16.3 Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion
    5. 16.4 The Simple Pendulum
    6. 16.5 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
    7. 16.6 Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion
    8. 16.7 Damped Harmonic Motion
    9. 16.8 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
    10. 16.9 Waves
    11. 16.10 Superposition and Interference
    12. 16.11 Energy in Waves: Intensity
    13. Glossary
    14. Section Summary
    15. Conceptual Questions
    16. Problems & Exercises
  18. 17 Physics of Hearing
    1. Introduction to the Physics of Hearing
    2. 17.1 Sound
    3. 17.2 Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength
    4. 17.3 Sound Intensity and Sound Level
    5. 17.4 Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
    6. 17.5 Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns
    7. 17.6 Hearing
    8. 17.7 Ultrasound
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  19. 18 Electric Charge and Electric Field
    1. Introduction to Electric Charge and Electric Field
    2. 18.1 Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge
    3. 18.2 Conductors and Insulators
    4. 18.3 Coulomb’s Law
    5. 18.4 Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited
    6. 18.5 Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges
    7. 18.6 Electric Forces in Biology
    8. 18.7 Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium
    9. 18.8 Applications of Electrostatics
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  20. 19 Electric Potential and Electric Field
    1. Introduction to Electric Potential and Electric Energy
    2. 19.1 Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference
    3. 19.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field
    4. 19.3 Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge
    5. 19.4 Equipotential Lines
    6. 19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics
    7. 19.6 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
    8. 19.7 Energy Stored in Capacitors
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  21. 20 Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
    1. Introduction to Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
    2. 20.1 Current
    3. 20.2 Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits
    4. 20.3 Resistance and Resistivity
    5. 20.4 Electric Power and Energy
    6. 20.5 Alternating Current versus Direct Current
    7. 20.6 Electric Hazards and the Human Body
    8. 20.7 Nerve Conduction–Electrocardiograms
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  22. 21 Circuits and DC Instruments
    1. Introduction to Circuits and DC Instruments
    2. 21.1 Resistors in Series and Parallel
    3. 21.2 Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage
    4. 21.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
    5. 21.4 DC Voltmeters and Ammeters
    6. 21.5 Null Measurements
    7. 21.6 DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  23. 22 Magnetism
    1. Introduction to Magnetism
    2. 22.1 Magnets
    3. 22.2 Ferromagnets and Electromagnets
    4. 22.3 Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines
    5. 22.4 Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field
    6. 22.5 Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications
    7. 22.6 The Hall Effect
    8. 22.7 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
    9. 22.8 Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters
    10. 22.9 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law
    11. 22.10 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors
    12. 22.11 More Applications of Magnetism
    13. Glossary
    14. Section Summary
    15. Conceptual Questions
    16. Problems & Exercises
  24. 23 Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies
    1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits and Electrical Technologies
    2. 23.1 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
    3. 23.2 Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
    4. 23.3 Motional Emf
    5. 23.4 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping
    6. 23.5 Electric Generators
    7. 23.6 Back Emf
    8. 23.7 Transformers
    9. 23.8 Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices
    10. 23.9 Inductance
    11. 23.10 RL Circuits
    12. 23.11 Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive
    13. 23.12 RLC Series AC Circuits
    14. Glossary
    15. Section Summary
    16. Conceptual Questions
    17. Problems & Exercises
  25. 24 Electromagnetic Waves
    1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves
    2. 24.1 Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed
    3. 24.2 Production of Electromagnetic Waves
    4. 24.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
    5. 24.4 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
    6. Glossary
    7. Section Summary
    8. Conceptual Questions
    9. Problems & Exercises
  26. 25 Geometric Optics
    1. Introduction to Geometric Optics
    2. 25.1 The Ray Aspect of Light
    3. 25.2 The Law of Reflection
    4. 25.3 The Law of Refraction
    5. 25.4 Total Internal Reflection
    6. 25.5 Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms
    7. 25.6 Image Formation by Lenses
    8. 25.7 Image Formation by Mirrors
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  27. 26 Vision and Optical Instruments
    1. Introduction to Vision and Optical Instruments
    2. 26.1 Physics of the Eye
    3. 26.2 Vision Correction
    4. 26.3 Color and Color Vision
    5. 26.4 Microscopes
    6. 26.5 Telescopes
    7. 26.6 Aberrations
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  28. 27 Wave Optics
    1. Introduction to Wave Optics
    2. 27.1 The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference
    3. 27.2 Huygens's Principle: Diffraction
    4. 27.3 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
    5. 27.4 Multiple Slit Diffraction
    6. 27.5 Single Slit Diffraction
    7. 27.6 Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion
    8. 27.7 Thin Film Interference
    9. 27.8 Polarization
    10. 27.9 *Extended Topic* Microscopy Enhanced by the Wave Characteristics of Light
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  29. 28 Special Relativity
    1. Introduction to Special Relativity
    2. 28.1 Einstein’s Postulates
    3. 28.2 Simultaneity And Time Dilation
    4. 28.3 Length Contraction
    5. 28.4 Relativistic Addition of Velocities
    6. 28.5 Relativistic Momentum
    7. 28.6 Relativistic Energy
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  30. 29 Quantum Physics
    1. Introduction to Quantum Physics
    2. 29.1 Quantization of Energy
    3. 29.2 The Photoelectric Effect
    4. 29.3 Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
    5. 29.4 Photon Momentum
    6. 29.5 The Particle-Wave Duality
    7. 29.6 The Wave Nature of Matter
    8. 29.7 Probability: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
    9. 29.8 The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  31. 30 Atomic Physics
    1. Introduction to Atomic Physics
    2. 30.1 Discovery of the Atom
    3. 30.2 Discovery of the Parts of the Atom: Electrons and Nuclei
    4. 30.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
    5. 30.4 X Rays: Atomic Origins and Applications
    6. 30.5 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations
    7. 30.6 The Wave Nature of Matter Causes Quantization
    8. 30.7 Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization
    9. 30.8 Quantum Numbers and Rules
    10. 30.9 The Pauli Exclusion Principle
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  32. 31 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
    1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
    2. 31.1 Nuclear Radioactivity
    3. 31.2 Radiation Detection and Detectors
    4. 31.3 Substructure of the Nucleus
    5. 31.4 Nuclear Decay and Conservation Laws
    6. 31.5 Half-Life and Activity
    7. 31.6 Binding Energy
    8. 31.7 Tunneling
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  33. 32 Medical Applications of Nuclear Physics
    1. Introduction to Applications of Nuclear Physics
    2. 32.1 Medical Imaging and Diagnostics
    3. 32.2 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
    4. 32.3 Therapeutic Uses of Ionizing Radiation
    5. 32.4 Food Irradiation
    6. 32.5 Fusion
    7. 32.6 Fission
    8. 32.7 Nuclear Weapons
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  34. 33 Particle Physics
    1. Introduction to Particle Physics
    2. 33.1 The Yukawa Particle and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Revisited
    3. 33.2 The Four Basic Forces
    4. 33.3 Accelerators Create Matter from Energy
    5. 33.4 Particles, Patterns, and Conservation Laws
    6. 33.5 Quarks: Is That All There Is?
    7. 33.6 GUTs: The Unification of Forces
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  35. 34 Frontiers of Physics
    1. Introduction to Frontiers of Physics
    2. 34.1 Cosmology and Particle Physics
    3. 34.2 General Relativity and Quantum Gravity
    4. 34.3 Superstrings
    5. 34.4 Dark Matter and Closure
    6. 34.5 Complexity and Chaos
    7. 34.6 High-temperature Superconductors
    8. 34.7 Some Questions We Know to Ask
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  36. A | Atomic Masses
  37. B | Selected Radioactive Isotopes
  38. C | Useful Information
  39. D | Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation
  40. Index

There are many interesting applications of Newton’s laws of motion, a few more of which are presented in this section. These serve also to illustrate some further subtleties of physics and to help build problem-solving skills.

Example 4.7

Drag Force on a Barge

Suppose two tugboats push on a barge at different angles, as shown in Figure 4.22. The first tugboat exerts a force of 2.7×105 N2.7×105 N size 12{2 "." 7 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N"} {} in the x-direction, and the second tugboat exerts a force of 3.6×105 N3.6×105 N size 12{3 "." 6 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N"} {} in the y-direction.

(a) A view from above two tugboats pushing on a barge. One tugboat is pushing with the force F sub x equal to two point seven multiplied by ten to the power five newtons, shown by a vector arrow acting toward the right in the x direction. Another tugboat is pushing with a force F sub y equal to three point six multiplied by ten to the power five newtons acting upward in the positive y direction. Acceleration of the barge, a, is shown by a vector arrow directed fifty-three point one degree angle above the x axis. In the free-body diagram, F sub y is acting on a point upward, F sub x is acting toward the right, and F sub D is acting approximately southwest. (b) A right triangle is made by the vectors F sub x and F sub y. The base vector is shown by the force vector F sub x. and the perpendicular vector is shown by the force vector F sub y. The resultant is the hypotenuse of this triangle, making a fifty-three point one degree angle from the base, shown by the vector force F sub net pointing up the inclination. A vector F sub D points down the incline.
Figure 4.22 (a) A view from above of two tugboats pushing on a barge. (b) The free-body diagram for the ship contains only forces acting in the plane of the water. It omits the two vertical forces—the weight of the barge and the buoyant force of the water supporting it cancel and are not shown. Since the applied forces are perpendicular, the x- and y-axes are in the same direction as FxFx size 12{F rSub { size 8{x} } } {} and FyFy size 12{F rSub { size 8{y} } } {}. The problem quickly becomes a one-dimensional problem along the direction of FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}, since friction is in the direction opposite to FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}.

If the mass of the barge is 5.0×106 kg5.0×106 kg size 12{5 times "10" rSup { size 8{6} } " kg"} {} and its acceleration is observed to be 7.5×102 m/s27.5×102 m/s2 size 12{7 "." "52" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 2} } " m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } } {} in the direction shown, what is the drag force of the water on the barge resisting the motion? (Note: drag force is a frictional force exerted by fluids, such as air or water. The drag force opposes the motion of the object.)

Strategy

The directions and magnitudes of acceleration and the applied forces are given in Figure 4.22(a). We will define the total force of the tugboats on the barge as FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {} so that:

F app = F x + F y F app = F x + F y size 12{F rSub { size 8{ ital "app"} } ital "= F" rSub { size 8{x} } ital "+ F" rSub { size 8{y} } } {}
4.59

Since the barge is flat bottomed, the drag of the water FDFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } } {} will be in the direction opposite to FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}, as shown in the free-body diagram in Figure 4.22(b). The system of interest here is the barge, since the forces on it are given as well as its acceleration. Our strategy is to find the magnitude and direction of the net applied force FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}, and then apply Newton’s second law to solve for the drag force FDFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } } {}.

Solution

Since FxFx size 12{F rSub { size 8{x} } } {} and FyFy size 12{F rSub { size 8{y} } } {} are perpendicular, the magnitude and direction of FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {} are easily found. First, the resultant magnitude is given by the Pythagorean theorem:

F app = F x 2 + F y 2 F app = ( 2.7 × 10 5 N ) 2 + ( 3.6 × 10 5 N ) 2 = 4.5 × 10 5 N. F app = F x 2 + F y 2 F app = ( 2.7 × 10 5 N ) 2 + ( 3.6 × 10 5 N ) 2 = 4.5 × 10 5 N. alignl { stack { size 12{F rSub { size 8{ ital "app"} } = \( F rSub { size 8{x} rSup { size 8{2} } } + F rSub { size 8{y} rSup { size 8{2} } } \) rSup { size 8{1/2} } } {} # F rSub { size 8{ ital "app"} } = \( \( 2 "." 7 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N" \) rSup { size 8{2} } + \( 3 "." 6 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N" \) rSup { size 8{2} } \) rSup { size 8{1/2} } =4 "." "50" times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N" "." {} } } {}
4.60

The angle is given by

θ = tan 1 F y F x θ = tan 1 3.6 × 10 5 N 2.7 × 10 5 N = 53º , θ = tan 1 F y F x θ = tan 1 3.6 × 10 5 N 2.7 × 10 5 N = 53º , alignl { stack { size 12{θ="tan" rSup { size 8{ - 1} } left ( { {F rSub { size 8{y} } } over {F rSub { size 8{x} } } } right )} {} # θ="tan" rSup { size 8{ - 1} } left ( { { \( 2 "." 7 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N" \) } over { \( 3 "." 6 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N" \) } } right )="53" "." 1°, {} } } {}
4.61

which we know, because of Newton’s first law, is the same direction as the acceleration. FDFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } } {} is in the opposite direction of FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}, since it acts to slow down the acceleration. Therefore, the net external force is in the same direction as FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}, but its magnitude is slightly less than FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}. The problem is now one-dimensional. From Figure 4.22(b), we can see that

Fnet=FappFD.Fnet=FappFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } =F rSub { size 8{"app"} } - F rSub { size 8{D} } } {}.
4.62

But Newton’s second law states that

Fnet=ma.Fnet=ma size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } = ital "ma"} {}.
4.63

Thus,

FappFD=ma.FappFD=ma size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } - F rSub { size 8{D} } = ital "ma"} {}.
4.64

This can be solved for the magnitude of the drag force of the water FDFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } } {} in terms of known quantities:

FD=Fappma.FD=Fappma size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } =F rSub { size 8{"app"} } - ital "ma"} {}.
4.65

Substituting known values gives

FD=(4.5×105 N)(5.0×106 kg)(7.5×10–2 m/s2)=7.5×104 N.FD=(4.5×105 N)(5.0×106 kg)(7.5×10–2 m/s2)=7.5×104 N size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } = \( 4 "." "50" times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N" \) - \( 5 "." "00" times "10" rSup { size 8{6} } " kg" \) \( 7 "." "50" times "10" rSup { size 8{"-2"} } " m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) =7 "." "50" times "10" rSup { size 8{4} } " N"} {}.
4.66

The direction of FDFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } } {} has already been determined to be in the direction opposite to FappFapp size 12{F rSub { size 8{"app"} } } {}, or at an angle of 53º53º size 12{"53" "." 1°} {} south of west.

Discussion

The numbers used in this example are reasonable for a moderately large barge. It is certainly difficult to obtain larger accelerations with tugboats, and small speeds are desirable to avoid running the barge into the docks. Drag is relatively small for a well-designed hull at low speeds, consistent with the answer to this example, where FDFD size 12{F rSub { size 8{D} } } {} is less than 1/600th of the weight of the ship.

In the earlier example of a tightrope walker we noted that the tensions in wires supporting a mass were equal only because the angles on either side were equal. Consider the following example, where the angles are not equal; slightly more trigonometry is involved.

Example 4.8

Different Tensions at Different Angles

Consider the traffic light (mass 15.0 kg) suspended from two wires as shown in Figure 4.23. Find the tension in each wire, neglecting the masses of the wires.

A sketch of a traffic light suspended from two wires supported by two poles is shown. (b) Some forces are shown in this system. Tension T sub one pulling the top of the left-hand pole is shown by the vector arrow along the left wire from the top of the pole, and an equal but opposite tension T sub one is shown by the arrow pointing up along the left-hand wire where it is attached to the light; the wire makes a thirty-degree angle with the horizontal. Tension T sub two is shown by a vector arrow pointing downward from the top of the right-hand pole along the right-hand wire, and an equal but opposite tension T sub two is shown by the arrow pointing up along the right-hand wire, which makes a forty-five degree angle with the horizontal. The traffic light is suspended at the lower end of the wires, and its weight W is shown by a vector arrow acting downward. (c) The traffic light is the system of interest. Tension T sub one starting from the traffic light is shown by an arrow along the wire making an angle of thirty degrees with the horizontal. Tension T sub two starting from the traffic light is shown by an arrow along the wire making an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizontal. The weight W is shown by a vector arrow pointing downward from the traffic light. A free-body diagram is shown with three forces acting on a point. Weight W acts downward; T sub one and T sub two act at an angle with the vertical. (d) Forces are shown with their components T sub one y and T sub two y pointing vertically upward. T sub one x points along the negative x direction, T sub two x points along the positive x direction, and weight W points vertically downward. (e) Vertical forces and horizontal forces are shown separately. Vertical forces T sub one y and T sub two y are shown by vector arrows acting along a vertical line pointing upward, and weight W is shown by a vector arrow acting downward. The net vertical force is zero, so T sub one y plus T sub two y is equal to W. On the other hand, T sub two x is shown by an arrow pointing toward the right, and T sub one x is shown by an arrow pointing toward the left. The net horizontal force is zero, so T sub one x is equal to T sub two x.
Figure 4.23 A traffic light is suspended from two wires. (b) Some of the forces involved. (c) Only forces acting on the system are shown here. The free-body diagram for the traffic light is also shown. (d) The forces projected onto vertical (y) and horizontal (x) axes. The horizontal components of the tensions must cancel, and the sum of the vertical components of the tensions must equal the weight of the traffic light. (e) The free-body diagram shows the vertical and horizontal forces acting on the traffic light.

Strategy

The system of interest is the traffic light, and its free-body diagram is shown in Figure 4.23(c). The three forces involved are not parallel, and so they must be projected onto a coordinate system. The most convenient coordinate system has one axis vertical and one horizontal, and the vector projections on it are shown in part (d) of the figure. There are two unknowns in this problem ( T 1 T 1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {} and T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {}), so two equations are needed to find them. These two equations come from applying Newton’s second law along the vertical and horizontal axes, noting that the net external force is zero along each axis because acceleration is zero.

Solution

First consider the horizontal or x-axis:

Fnet x=T2xT1x=0.Fnet x=T2xT1x=0 size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net x"} } =T rSub { size 8{"2x"} } - T rSub { size 8{"1x"} } =0} {}.
4.67

Thus, as you might expect,

T1x=T2x.T1x=T2x size 12{T rSub { size 8{"1x"} } = T rSub { size 8{"2x"} } } {}.
4.68

This gives us the following relationship between T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {} and T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {}:

T1cos(30º)=T2cos(45º).T1cos(30º)=T2cos(45º) size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } "cos" \( "30"° \) =T rSub { size 8{2} } "cos" \( "45"° \) } {}.
4.69

Thus,

T2=(1.225)T1.T2=(1.225)T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } = \( 1 "." "225" \) T rSub { size 8{1} } } {}.
4.70

Note that T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {} and T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {} are not equal in this case, because the angles on either side are not equal. It is reasonable that T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {} ends up being greater than T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {}, because it is exerted more vertically than T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {}.

Now consider the force components along the vertical or y-axis:

Fnet y=T1y+T2yw=0.Fnet y=T1y+T2yw=0 size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net y"} } =T rSub { size 8{"1y"} } +T rSub { size 8{"2y"} } - w=0} {}.
4.71

This implies

T1y+T2y=w.T1y+T2y=w size 12{T rSub { size 8{"1y"} } +T rSub { size 8{"2y"} } =w} {}.
4.72

Substituting the expressions for the vertical components gives

T1sin(30º)+T2sin(45º)=w.T1sin(30º)+T2sin(45º)=w size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } "sin" \( "30"° \) + T rSub { size 8{2} } "sin" \( "45"° \) =w} {}.
4.73

There are two unknowns in this equation, but substituting the expression for T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {} in terms of T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {} reduces this to one equation with one unknown:

T1(0.500)+(1.225T1)(0.707)=w=mg,T1(0.500)+(1.225T1)(0.707)=w=mg size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } \( 0 "." "500" \) + \( 1 "." "225"T rSub { size 8{1} } \) \( 0 "." "707" \) =w= ital "mg"} {},
4.74

which yields

1.366T1=(15.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2).1.366T1=(15.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2) size 12{ left (1 "." "366" right )T rSub { size 8{1} } = \( "15" "." "0 kg" \) \( 9 "." "80 m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) } {}.
4.75

Solving this last equation gives the magnitude of T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {} to be

T1=108 N.T1=108 N size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } ="108"" N"} {}.
4.76

Finally, the magnitude of T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {} is determined using the relationship between them, T2T2 size 12{T rSub { size 8{1} } } {} = 1.225 T1T1 size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } } {}, found above. Thus we obtain

T 2 = 132 N . T 2 = 132 N size 12{T rSub { size 8{2} } ="132 N"} {} .
4.77

Discussion

Both tensions would be larger if both wires were more horizontal, and they will be equal if and only if the angles on either side are the same (as they were in the earlier example of a tightrope walker).

The bathroom scale is an excellent example of a normal force acting on a body. It provides a quantitative reading of how much it must push upward to support the weight of an object. But can you predict what you would see on the dial of a bathroom scale if you stood on it during an elevator ride? Will you see a value greater than your weight when the elevator starts up? What about when the elevator moves upward at a constant speed: will the scale still read more than your weight at rest? Consider the following example.

Example 4.9

What Does the Bathroom Scale Read in an Elevator?

Figure 4.24 shows a 75.0-kg man (weight of about 165 lb) standing on a bathroom scale in an elevator. Calculate the scale reading: (a) if the elevator accelerates upward at a rate of 1.20 m/s21.20 m/s2 size 12{1 "." "20 m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}, and (b) if the elevator moves upward at a constant speed of 1 m/s.

A person is standing on a bathroom scale in an elevator. His weight w is shown by an arrow pointing downward. F sub s is the force of the scale on the person, shown by a vector starting from his feet pointing vertically upward. W sub s is the weight of the scale pointing vertically downward. W sub e is the weight of the elevator, shown by the broken arrow pointing vertically downward. F sub p is the force of the person on the scale, acting vertically downward. F sub t is the force of the scale on the floor of the elevator, pointing vertically downward, and N is the normal force of the floor on the scale, pointing upward. (b) The same person is shown on the scale in the elevator, but only a few forces are shown acting on the person, which is our system of interest. W is shown by an arrow acting downward, and F sub s is the force of the scale on the person, shown by a vector starting from his feet pointing vertically upward. The free-body diagram is also shown, with two forces acting on a point. F sub s acts vertically upward, and w acts vertically downward.
Figure 4.24 (a) The various forces acting when a person stands on a bathroom scale in an elevator. The arrows are approximately correct for when the elevator is accelerating upward—broken arrows represent forces too large to be drawn to scale. TT size 12{T} is the tension in the supporting cable, ww size 12{w} is the weight of the person, wsws size 12{w rSub { size 8{s} } } {} is the weight of the scale, wewe size 12{w rSub { size 8{e} } } {} is the weight of the elevator, FsFs size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } } {} is the force of the scale on the person, FpFp size 12{F rSub { size 8{p} } } {} is the force of the person on the scale, FtFt size 12{F rSub { size 8{t} } } {} is the force of the scale on the floor of the elevator, and NN size 12{N} is the force of the floor upward on the scale. (b) The free-body diagram shows only the external forces acting on the designated system of interest—the person.

Strategy

If the scale is accurate, its reading will equal FpFp size 12{F rSub { size 8{p} } } {}, the magnitude of the force the person exerts downward on it. Figure 4.24(a) shows the numerous forces acting on the elevator, scale, and person. It makes this one-dimensional problem look much more formidable than if the person is chosen to be the system of interest and a free-body diagram is drawn as in Figure 4.24(b). Analysis of the free-body diagram using Newton’s laws can produce answers to both parts (a) and (b) of this example, as well as some other questions that might arise. The only forces acting on the person are his weight ww size 12{w} {} and the upward force of the scale FsFs size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } } {}. According to Newton’s third law FpFp size 12{F rSub { size 8{p} } } {} and FsFs size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } } {} are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, so that we need to find FsFs size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } } {} in order to find what the scale reads. We can do this, as usual, by applying Newton’s second law,

Fnet=ma.Fnet=ma size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } = ital "ma"} {}.
4.78

From the free-body diagram we see that Fnet=FswFnet=Fsw size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } =F rSub { size 8{s} } - w} {}, so that

Fsw=ma.Fsw=ma size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } - w= ital "ma"} {}.
4.79

Solving for FsFs size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } } {} gives an equation with only one unknown:

Fs=ma+w,Fs=ma+w size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } = ital "ma"+w} {},
4.80

or, because w=mgw=mg, simply

Fs=ma+mg.Fs=ma+mg size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } = ital "ma"+ ital "mg"} {}.
4.81

No assumptions were made about the acceleration, and so this solution should be valid for a variety of accelerations in addition to the ones in this exercise.

Solution for (a)

In this part of the problem, a=1.20 m/s2a=1.20 m/s2 size 12{a=1 "." "20"" m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}, so that

Fs=(75.0 kg)(1.20 m/s2)+(75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2),Fs=(75.0 kg)(1.20 m/s2)+(75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2) size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } = \( "75" "." "0 kg" \) \( 1 "." "20 m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) + \( "75" "." "0 kg" \) \( 9 "." "80 m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) } {},
4.82

yielding

Fs=825 N.Fs=825 N size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } =8"25 N"} {}.
4.83

Discussion for (a)

This is about 185 lb. What would the scale have read if he were stationary? Since his acceleration would be zero, the force of the scale would be equal to his weight:

F net = ma = 0 = F s w F s = w = mg F s = ( 75.0 kg ) ( 9. 80 m/s 2 ) F s = 735 N. F net = ma = 0 = F s w F s = w = mg F s = ( 75.0 kg ) ( 9. 80 m/s 2 ) F s = 735 N. alignl { stack { size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } = ital "ma"=0=F rSub { size 8{s} } - w} {} # F rSub { size 8{s} } =w= ital "mg" {} # F rSub { size 8{s} } = \( "75" "." 0" kg" \) \( 9 "." "80 m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) {} # F rSub { size 8{s} } ="735"" N" "." {} } } {}
4.84

So, the scale reading in the elevator is greater than his 735-N (165 lb) weight. This means that the scale is pushing up on the person with a force greater than his weight, as it must in order to accelerate him upward. Clearly, the greater the acceleration of the elevator, the greater the scale reading, consistent with what you feel in rapidly accelerating versus slowly accelerating elevators.

Solution for (b)

Now, what happens when the elevator reaches a constant upward velocity? Will the scale still read more than his weight? For any constant velocity—up, down, or stationary—acceleration is zero because a=ΔvΔta=ΔvΔt size 12{a= { {Δv} over {Δt} } } {}, and Δv=0Δv=0 size 12{Δv=0} {}.

Thus,

Fs=ma+mg=0+mg.Fs=ma+mg=0+mg size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } = ital "ma"+ ital "mg"=0+ ital "mg"} {}.
4.85

Now

Fs=(75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2),Fs=(75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2) size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } = \( "75" "." "0 kg" \) \( 9 "." "80 m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) } {},
4.86

which gives

Fs=735 N.Fs=735 N size 12{F rSub { size 8{s} } =7"35 N"} {}.
4.87

Discussion for (b)

The scale reading is 735 N, which equals the person’s weight. This will be the case whenever the elevator has a constant velocity—moving up, moving down, or stationary.

The solution to the previous example also applies to an elevator accelerating downward, as mentioned. When an elevator accelerates downward, aa size 12{a} {} is negative, and the scale reading is less than the weight of the person, until a constant downward velocity is reached, at which time the scale reading again becomes equal to the person’s weight. If the elevator is in free-fall and accelerating downward at gg size 12{g} {}, then the scale reading will be zero and the person will appear to be weightless.

Integrating Concepts: Newton’s Laws of Motion and Kinematics

Physics is most interesting and most powerful when applied to general situations that involve more than a narrow set of physical principles. Newton’s laws of motion can also be integrated with other concepts that have been discussed previously in this text to solve problems of motion. For example, forces produce accelerations, a topic of kinematics, and hence the relevance of earlier chapters. When approaching problems that involve various types of forces, acceleration, velocity, and/or position, use the following steps to approach the problem:

Problem-Solving Strategy

Step 1. Identify which physical principles are involved. Listing the givens and the quantities to be calculated will allow you to identify the principles involved.
Step 2. Solve the problem using strategies outlined in the text. If these are available for the specific topic, you should refer to them. You should also refer to the sections of the text that deal with a particular topic. The following worked example illustrates how these strategies are applied to an integrated concept problem.

Example 4.10

What Force Must a Soccer Player Exert to Reach Top Speed?

A soccer player starts from rest and accelerates forward, reaching a velocity of 8.00 m/s in 2.50 s. (a) What was his average acceleration? (b) What average force did he exert backward on the ground to achieve this acceleration? The player’s mass is 70.0 kg, and air resistance is negligible.

Strategy

  1. To solve an integrated concept problem, we must first identify the physical principles involved and identify the chapters in which they are found. Part (a) of this example considers acceleration along a straight line. This is a topic of kinematics. Part (b) deals with force, a topic of dynamics found in this chapter.
  2. The following solutions to each part of the example illustrate how the specific problem-solving strategies are applied. These involve identifying knowns and unknowns, checking to see if the answer is reasonable, and so forth.

Solution for (a)

We are given the initial and final velocities (zero and 8.00 m/s forward); thus, the change in velocity is Δv=8.00 m/sΔv=8.00 m/s. We are given the elapsed time, and so Δt=2.50 sΔt=2.50 s size 12{Δt=2 "." "50"" s"} {}. The unknown is acceleration, which can be found from its definition:

a=ΔvΔt.a=ΔvΔt size 12{a= { {Δv} over {Δt} } } {}.
4.88

Substituting the known values yields

a = 8.00 m/s 2 . 50 s = 3 . 20 m/s 2 . a = 8.00 m/s 2 . 50 s = 3 . 20 m/s 2 .
4.89

Discussion for (a)

This is an attainable acceleration for an athlete in good condition.

Solution for (b)

Here we are asked to find the average force the player exerts backward to achieve this forward acceleration. Neglecting air resistance, this would be equal in magnitude to the net external force on the player, since this force causes his acceleration. Since we now know the player’s acceleration and are given his mass, we can use Newton’s second law to find the force exerted. That is,

Fnet=ma.Fnet=ma size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } = ital "ma"} {}.
4.90

Substituting the known values of mm size 12{m} {} and aa size 12{a} {} gives

Fnet = (70.0 kg) (3.20 m/s2) = 224 N. Fnet = (70.0 kg) (3.20 m/s2) = 224 N.
4.91

Discussion for (b)

This is about 50 pounds, a reasonable average force.

This worked example illustrates how to apply problem-solving strategies to situations that include topics from different chapters. The first step is to identify the physical principles involved in the problem. The second step is to solve for the unknown using familiar problem-solving strategies. These strategies are found throughout the text, and many worked examples show how to use them for single topics. You will find these techniques for integrated concept problems useful in applications of physics outside of a physics course, such as in your profession, in other science disciplines, and in everyday life. The following problems will build your skills in the broad application of physical principles.

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