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College Physics

13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature

College Physics13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature

Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
    1. Introduction to Science and the Realm of Physics, Physical Quantities, and Units
    2. 1.1 Physics: An Introduction
    3. 1.2 Physical Quantities and Units
    4. 1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures
    5. 1.4 Approximation
    6. Glossary
    7. Section Summary
    8. Conceptual Questions
    9. Problems & Exercises
  3. 2 Kinematics
    1. Introduction to One-Dimensional Kinematics
    2. 2.1 Displacement
    3. 2.2 Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems
    4. 2.3 Time, Velocity, and Speed
    5. 2.4 Acceleration
    6. 2.5 Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension
    7. 2.6 Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics
    8. 2.7 Falling Objects
    9. 2.8 Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  4. 3 Two-Dimensional Kinematics
    1. Introduction to Two-Dimensional Kinematics
    2. 3.1 Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction
    3. 3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods
    4. 3.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods
    5. 3.4 Projectile Motion
    6. 3.5 Addition of Velocities
    7. Glossary
    8. Section Summary
    9. Conceptual Questions
    10. Problems & Exercises
  5. 4 Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion
    1. Introduction to Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion
    2. 4.1 Development of Force Concept
    3. 4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia
    4. 4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System
    5. 4.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces
    6. 4.5 Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces
    7. 4.6 Problem-Solving Strategies
    8. 4.7 Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
    9. 4.8 Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  6. 5 Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity
    1. Introduction: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
    2. 5.1 Friction
    3. 5.2 Drag Forces
    4. 5.3 Elasticity: Stress and Strain
    5. Glossary
    6. Section Summary
    7. Conceptual Questions
    8. Problems & Exercises
  7. 6 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
    1. Introduction to Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
    2. 6.1 Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity
    3. 6.2 Centripetal Acceleration
    4. 6.3 Centripetal Force
    5. 6.4 Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force
    6. 6.5 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
    7. 6.6 Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  8. 7 Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
    1. Introduction to Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
    2. 7.1 Work: The Scientific Definition
    3. 7.2 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem
    4. 7.3 Gravitational Potential Energy
    5. 7.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
    6. 7.5 Nonconservative Forces
    7. 7.6 Conservation of Energy
    8. 7.7 Power
    9. 7.8 Work, Energy, and Power in Humans
    10. 7.9 World Energy Use
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  9. 8 Linear Momentum and Collisions
    1. Introduction to Linear Momentum and Collisions
    2. 8.1 Linear Momentum and Force
    3. 8.2 Impulse
    4. 8.3 Conservation of Momentum
    5. 8.4 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
    6. 8.5 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension
    7. 8.6 Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions
    8. 8.7 Introduction to Rocket Propulsion
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  10. 9 Statics and Torque
    1. Introduction to Statics and Torque
    2. 9.1 The First Condition for Equilibrium
    3. 9.2 The Second Condition for Equilibrium
    4. 9.3 Stability
    5. 9.4 Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies
    6. 9.5 Simple Machines
    7. 9.6 Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  11. 10 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
    1. Introduction to Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
    2. 10.1 Angular Acceleration
    3. 10.2 Kinematics of Rotational Motion
    4. 10.3 Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia
    5. 10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited
    6. 10.5 Angular Momentum and Its Conservation
    7. 10.6 Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions
    8. 10.7 Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  12. 11 Fluid Statics
    1. Introduction to Fluid Statics
    2. 11.1 What Is a Fluid?
    3. 11.2 Density
    4. 11.3 Pressure
    5. 11.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
    6. 11.5 Pascal’s Principle
    7. 11.6 Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement
    8. 11.7 Archimedes’ Principle
    9. 11.8 Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action
    10. 11.9 Pressures in the Body
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  13. 12 Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
    1. Introduction to Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
    2. 12.1 Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity
    3. 12.2 Bernoulli’s Equation
    4. 12.3 The Most General Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
    5. 12.4 Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law
    6. 12.5 The Onset of Turbulence
    7. 12.6 Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid
    8. 12.7 Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  14. 13 Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
    1. Introduction to Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
    2. 13.1 Temperature
    3. 13.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
    4. 13.3 The Ideal Gas Law
    5. 13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature
    6. 13.5 Phase Changes
    7. 13.6 Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  15. 14 Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
    1. Introduction to Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
    2. 14.1 Heat
    3. 14.2 Temperature Change and Heat Capacity
    4. 14.3 Phase Change and Latent Heat
    5. 14.4 Heat Transfer Methods
    6. 14.5 Conduction
    7. 14.6 Convection
    8. 14.7 Radiation
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  16. 15 Thermodynamics
    1. Introduction to Thermodynamics
    2. 15.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
    3. 15.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes
    4. 15.3 Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency
    5. 15.4 Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated
    6. 15.5 Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
    7. 15.6 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy
    8. 15.7 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Underlying Explanation
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  17. 16 Oscillatory Motion and Waves
    1. Introduction to Oscillatory Motion and Waves
    2. 16.1 Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited
    3. 16.2 Period and Frequency in Oscillations
    4. 16.3 Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion
    5. 16.4 The Simple Pendulum
    6. 16.5 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
    7. 16.6 Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion
    8. 16.7 Damped Harmonic Motion
    9. 16.8 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
    10. 16.9 Waves
    11. 16.10 Superposition and Interference
    12. 16.11 Energy in Waves: Intensity
    13. Glossary
    14. Section Summary
    15. Conceptual Questions
    16. Problems & Exercises
  18. 17 Physics of Hearing
    1. Introduction to the Physics of Hearing
    2. 17.1 Sound
    3. 17.2 Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength
    4. 17.3 Sound Intensity and Sound Level
    5. 17.4 Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
    6. 17.5 Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns
    7. 17.6 Hearing
    8. 17.7 Ultrasound
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  19. 18 Electric Charge and Electric Field
    1. Introduction to Electric Charge and Electric Field
    2. 18.1 Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge
    3. 18.2 Conductors and Insulators
    4. 18.3 Coulomb’s Law
    5. 18.4 Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited
    6. 18.5 Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges
    7. 18.6 Electric Forces in Biology
    8. 18.7 Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium
    9. 18.8 Applications of Electrostatics
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  20. 19 Electric Potential and Electric Field
    1. Introduction to Electric Potential and Electric Energy
    2. 19.1 Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference
    3. 19.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field
    4. 19.3 Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge
    5. 19.4 Equipotential Lines
    6. 19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics
    7. 19.6 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
    8. 19.7 Energy Stored in Capacitors
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  21. 20 Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
    1. Introduction to Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
    2. 20.1 Current
    3. 20.2 Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits
    4. 20.3 Resistance and Resistivity
    5. 20.4 Electric Power and Energy
    6. 20.5 Alternating Current versus Direct Current
    7. 20.6 Electric Hazards and the Human Body
    8. 20.7 Nerve Conduction–Electrocardiograms
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  22. 21 Circuits and DC Instruments
    1. Introduction to Circuits and DC Instruments
    2. 21.1 Resistors in Series and Parallel
    3. 21.2 Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage
    4. 21.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
    5. 21.4 DC Voltmeters and Ammeters
    6. 21.5 Null Measurements
    7. 21.6 DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  23. 22 Magnetism
    1. Introduction to Magnetism
    2. 22.1 Magnets
    3. 22.2 Ferromagnets and Electromagnets
    4. 22.3 Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines
    5. 22.4 Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field
    6. 22.5 Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications
    7. 22.6 The Hall Effect
    8. 22.7 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
    9. 22.8 Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters
    10. 22.9 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law
    11. 22.10 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors
    12. 22.11 More Applications of Magnetism
    13. Glossary
    14. Section Summary
    15. Conceptual Questions
    16. Problems & Exercises
  24. 23 Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies
    1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits and Electrical Technologies
    2. 23.1 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
    3. 23.2 Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
    4. 23.3 Motional Emf
    5. 23.4 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping
    6. 23.5 Electric Generators
    7. 23.6 Back Emf
    8. 23.7 Transformers
    9. 23.8 Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices
    10. 23.9 Inductance
    11. 23.10 RL Circuits
    12. 23.11 Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive
    13. 23.12 RLC Series AC Circuits
    14. Glossary
    15. Section Summary
    16. Conceptual Questions
    17. Problems & Exercises
  25. 24 Electromagnetic Waves
    1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves
    2. 24.1 Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed
    3. 24.2 Production of Electromagnetic Waves
    4. 24.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
    5. 24.4 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
    6. Glossary
    7. Section Summary
    8. Conceptual Questions
    9. Problems & Exercises
  26. 25 Geometric Optics
    1. Introduction to Geometric Optics
    2. 25.1 The Ray Aspect of Light
    3. 25.2 The Law of Reflection
    4. 25.3 The Law of Refraction
    5. 25.4 Total Internal Reflection
    6. 25.5 Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms
    7. 25.6 Image Formation by Lenses
    8. 25.7 Image Formation by Mirrors
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  27. 26 Vision and Optical Instruments
    1. Introduction to Vision and Optical Instruments
    2. 26.1 Physics of the Eye
    3. 26.2 Vision Correction
    4. 26.3 Color and Color Vision
    5. 26.4 Microscopes
    6. 26.5 Telescopes
    7. 26.6 Aberrations
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  28. 27 Wave Optics
    1. Introduction to Wave Optics
    2. 27.1 The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference
    3. 27.2 Huygens's Principle: Diffraction
    4. 27.3 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
    5. 27.4 Multiple Slit Diffraction
    6. 27.5 Single Slit Diffraction
    7. 27.6 Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion
    8. 27.7 Thin Film Interference
    9. 27.8 Polarization
    10. 27.9 *Extended Topic* Microscopy Enhanced by the Wave Characteristics of Light
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  29. 28 Special Relativity
    1. Introduction to Special Relativity
    2. 28.1 Einstein’s Postulates
    3. 28.2 Simultaneity And Time Dilation
    4. 28.3 Length Contraction
    5. 28.4 Relativistic Addition of Velocities
    6. 28.5 Relativistic Momentum
    7. 28.6 Relativistic Energy
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  30. 29 Quantum Physics
    1. Introduction to Quantum Physics
    2. 29.1 Quantization of Energy
    3. 29.2 The Photoelectric Effect
    4. 29.3 Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
    5. 29.4 Photon Momentum
    6. 29.5 The Particle-Wave Duality
    7. 29.6 The Wave Nature of Matter
    8. 29.7 Probability: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
    9. 29.8 The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  31. 30 Atomic Physics
    1. Introduction to Atomic Physics
    2. 30.1 Discovery of the Atom
    3. 30.2 Discovery of the Parts of the Atom: Electrons and Nuclei
    4. 30.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
    5. 30.4 X Rays: Atomic Origins and Applications
    6. 30.5 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations
    7. 30.6 The Wave Nature of Matter Causes Quantization
    8. 30.7 Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization
    9. 30.8 Quantum Numbers and Rules
    10. 30.9 The Pauli Exclusion Principle
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  32. 31 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
    1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
    2. 31.1 Nuclear Radioactivity
    3. 31.2 Radiation Detection and Detectors
    4. 31.3 Substructure of the Nucleus
    5. 31.4 Nuclear Decay and Conservation Laws
    6. 31.5 Half-Life and Activity
    7. 31.6 Binding Energy
    8. 31.7 Tunneling
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  33. 32 Medical Applications of Nuclear Physics
    1. Introduction to Applications of Nuclear Physics
    2. 32.1 Medical Imaging and Diagnostics
    3. 32.2 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
    4. 32.3 Therapeutic Uses of Ionizing Radiation
    5. 32.4 Food Irradiation
    6. 32.5 Fusion
    7. 32.6 Fission
    8. 32.7 Nuclear Weapons
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  34. 33 Particle Physics
    1. Introduction to Particle Physics
    2. 33.1 The Yukawa Particle and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Revisited
    3. 33.2 The Four Basic Forces
    4. 33.3 Accelerators Create Matter from Energy
    5. 33.4 Particles, Patterns, and Conservation Laws
    6. 33.5 Quarks: Is That All There Is?
    7. 33.6 GUTs: The Unification of Forces
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  35. 34 Frontiers of Physics
    1. Introduction to Frontiers of Physics
    2. 34.1 Cosmology and Particle Physics
    3. 34.2 General Relativity and Quantum Gravity
    4. 34.3 Superstrings
    5. 34.4 Dark Matter and Closure
    6. 34.5 Complexity and Chaos
    7. 34.6 High-temperature Superconductors
    8. 34.7 Some Questions We Know to Ask
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  36. A | Atomic Masses
  37. B | Selected Radioactive Isotopes
  38. C | Useful Information
  39. D | Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation
  40. Index

We have developed macroscopic definitions of pressure and temperature. Pressure is the force divided by the area on which the force is exerted, and temperature is measured with a thermometer. We gain a better understanding of pressure and temperature from the kinetic theory of gases, which assumes that atoms and molecules are in continuous random motion.

A green vector v, representing a molecule colliding with a wall, is pointing at the surface of a wall at an angle. A second vector v primed starts at the point of impact and travels away from the wall at an angle. A dotted line perpendicular to the wall through the point of impact represents the component of the molecule’s momentum that is perpendicular to the wall. A red vector F is pointing into the wall from the point of impact, representing the force of the molecule hitting the wall.
Figure 13.20 When a molecule collides with a rigid wall, the component of its momentum perpendicular to the wall is reversed. A force is thus exerted on the wall, creating pressure.

Figure 13.20 shows an elastic collision of a gas molecule with the wall of a container, so that it exerts a force on the wall (by Newton’s third law). Because a huge number of molecules will collide with the wall in a short time, we observe an average force per unit area. These collisions are the source of pressure in a gas. As the number of molecules increases, the number of collisions and thus the pressure increase. Similarly, the gas pressure is higher if the average velocity of molecules is higher. The actual relationship is derived in the Things Great and Small feature below. The following relationship is found:

PV = 1 3 Nm v 2 ¯ , PV = 1 3 Nm v 2 ¯ , size 12{ ital "PV"= { {1} over {3} } ital "Nm" {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} ,} {}
13.42

where PP size 12{P} {} is the pressure (average force per unit area), VV size 12{V} {} is the volume of gas in the container, NN size 12{N} {} is the number of molecules in the container, mm size 12{m} {} is the mass of a molecule, and v2¯v2¯ size 12{ {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } {} is the average of the molecular speed squared.

What can we learn from this atomic and molecular version of the ideal gas law? We can derive a relationship between temperature and the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in a gas. Recall the previous expression of the ideal gas law:

PV=NkT.PV=NkT. size 12{ ital "PV"= ital "NkT"} {}
13.43

Equating the right-hand side of this equation with the right-hand side of PV=13Nmv2¯PV=13Nmv2¯ size 12{ ital "PV"= { {1} over {3} } ital "Nm" {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } {} gives

13Nmv2¯=NkT.13Nmv2¯=NkT. size 12{ { {1} over {3} } ital "Nm" {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} = ital "NkT"} {}
13.44

Making Connections: Things Great and Small—Atomic and Molecular Origin of Pressure in a Gas

Figure 13.21 shows a box filled with a gas. We know from our previous discussions that putting more gas into the box produces greater pressure, and that increasing the temperature of the gas also produces a greater pressure. But why should increasing the temperature of the gas increase the pressure in the box? A look at the atomic and molecular scale gives us some answers, and an alternative expression for the ideal gas law.

The figure shows an expanded view of an elastic collision of a gas molecule with the wall of a container. Calculating the average force exerted by such molecules will lead us to the ideal gas law, and to the connection between temperature and molecular kinetic energy. We assume that a molecule is small compared with the separation of molecules in the gas, and that its interaction with other molecules can be ignored. We also assume the wall is rigid and that the molecule’s direction changes, but that its speed remains constant (and hence its kinetic energy and the magnitude of its momentum remain constant as well). This assumption is not always valid, but the same result is obtained with a more detailed description of the molecule’s exchange of energy and momentum with the wall.

Diagram representing the pressures that a gas exerts on the walls of a box in a three-dimensional coordinate system with x, y, and z components.
Figure 13.21 Gas in a box exerts an outward pressure on its walls. A molecule colliding with a rigid wall has the direction of its velocity and momentum in the xx size 12{x} {}-direction reversed. This direction is perpendicular to the wall. The components of its velocity momentum in the yy size 12{y} {}- and zz size 12{z} {}-directions are not changed, which means there is no force parallel to the wall.

If the molecule’s velocity changes in the xx size 12{x} {}-direction, its momentum changes from mvxmvx size 12{– ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } } {} to +mvx+mvx size 12{+ ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } } {}. Thus, its change in momentum is Δmv= +mvxmvx=2mvxΔmv= +mvxmvx=2mvx size 12{Δ ital "mv""=+" ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } – left (– ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } right )=2 ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } } {}. The force exerted on the molecule is given by

F = Δp Δt = 2 mv x Δt . F = Δp Δt = 2 mv x Δt . size 12{F= { {Δp} over {Δt} } = { {2 ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } } over {Δt} } "." } {}
13.45

There is no force between the wall and the molecule until the molecule hits the wall. During the short time of the collision, the force between the molecule and wall is relatively large. We are looking for an average force; we take ΔtΔt size 12{Dt} {} to be the average time between collisions of the molecule with this wall. It is the time it would take the molecule to go across the box and back (a distance 2l)2l) size 12{2l \) } {} at a speed of vxvx size 12{v rSub { size 8{x} } } {}. Thus Δt=2l/vxΔt=2l/vx size 12{Δt=2l/v rSub { size 8{x} } } {}, and the expression for the force becomes

F = 2 mv x 2 l / v x = mv x 2 l . F = 2 mv x 2 l / v x = mv x 2 l . size 12{F= { {2 ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } } over { {2l} slash {v rSub { size 8{x} } } } } = { { ital "mv" rSub { size 8{x} } rSup { size 8{2} } } over {l} } "." } {}
13.46

This force is due to one molecule. We multiply by the number of molecules NN size 12{N} {} and use their average squared velocity to find the force

F = N m v x 2 ¯ l , F = N m v x 2 ¯ l , size 12{F=N { {m {overline {v rSub { size 8{x} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} } over {l} } ,} {}
13.47

where the bar over a quantity means its average value. We would like to have the force in terms of the speed vv size 12{v} {}, rather than the xx size 12{x} {}-component of the velocity. We note that the total velocity squared is the sum of the squares of its components, so that

v 2 ¯ = v x 2 ¯ + v y 2 ¯ + v z 2 ¯ . v 2 ¯ = v x 2 ¯ + v y 2 ¯ + v z 2 ¯ . size 12{ {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} = {overline {v rSub { size 8{x} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} + {overline {v rSub { size 8{y} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} + {overline {v rSub { size 8{z} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} "." } {}
13.48

Because the velocities are random, their average components in all directions are the same:

v x 2 ¯ = v y 2 ¯ = v z 2 ¯ . v x 2 ¯ = v y 2 ¯ = v z 2 ¯ . size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{x} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} = {overline {v rSub { size 8{y} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} = {overline {v rSub { size 8{z} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} "." } {}
13.49

Thus,

v 2 ¯ = 3 v x 2 ¯ , v 2 ¯ = 3 v x 2 ¯ , size 12{ {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} =3 {overline {v rSub { size 8{x} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} ,} {}
13.50

or

v x 2 ¯ = 1 3 v 2 ¯ . v x 2 ¯ = 1 3 v 2 ¯ . size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{x} } rSup { size 8{2} } }} = { {1} over {3} } {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } {}
13.51

Substituting 13v2¯13v2¯ size 12{ { {1} over {3} } {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } {} into the expression for FF size 12{F} {} gives

F = N m v 2 ¯ 3l . F = N m v 2 ¯ 3l . size 12{F=N { {m {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } over {3l} } "." } {}
13.52

The pressure is F/A,F/A, size 12{F/A,} {} so that we obtain

P = F A = N m v 2 ¯ 3 Al = 1 3 Nm v 2 ¯ V , P = F A = N m v 2 ¯ 3 Al = 1 3 Nm v 2 ¯ V , size 12{P= { {F} over {A} } =N { {m {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } over {3 ital "Al"} } = { {1} over {3} } { { ital "Nm" {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } over {V} } ,} {}
13.53

where we used V=AlV=Al size 12{V= ital "Al"} {} for the volume. This gives the important result.

PV = 1 3 Nm v 2 ¯ PV = 1 3 Nm v 2 ¯ size 12{ ital "PV"= { {1} over {3} } ital "Nm" {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } {}
13.54

This equation is another expression of the ideal gas law.

We can get the average kinetic energy of a molecule, 12mv212mv2 size 12{ { { size 8{1} } over { size 8{2} } } ital "mv" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}, from the right-hand side of the equation by canceling NN size 12{N} {} and multiplying by 3/2. This calculation produces the result that the average kinetic energy of a molecule is directly related to absolute temperature.

KE ¯ = 1 2 m v 2 ¯ = 3 2 kT KE ¯ = 1 2 m v 2 ¯ = 3 2 kT size 12{ {overline {"KE"}} = { {1} over {2} } m {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} = { {3} over {2} } ital "kT"} {}
13.55

The average translational kinetic energy of a molecule, KE¯KE¯ size 12{ {overline {"KE"}} } {}, is called thermal energy. The equation KE¯=12mv2¯=32kTKE¯=12mv2¯=32kT size 12{ {overline { size 11{"KE"}}} = { {1} over {2} } m {overline { size 11{v rSup { size 8{2} } }}} = { {3} over {2} } ital "kT"} {} is a molecular interpretation of temperature, and it has been found to be valid for gases and reasonably accurate in liquids and solids. It is another definition of temperature based on an expression of the molecular energy.

It is sometimes useful to rearrange KE¯=12mv2¯=32kTKE¯=12mv2¯=32kT size 12{ {overline { size 11{"KE"}}} = { {1} over {2} } m {overline { size 11{v rSup { size 8{2} } }}} = { {3} over {2} } ital "kT"} {}, and solve for the average speed of molecules in a gas in terms of temperature,

v 2 ¯ = v rms = 3 kT m , v 2 ¯ = v rms = 3 kT m , size 12{ sqrt { {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } =v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } = sqrt { { {3 ital "kT"} over {m} } } ,} {}
13.56

where vrmsvrms size 12{v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {} stands for root-mean-square (rms) speed.

Example 13.10

Calculating Kinetic Energy and Speed of a Gas Molecule

(a) What is the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule at 20.0ºC20.0ºC size 12{"20" "." 0°C} {} (room temperature)? (b) Find the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule (N2)(N2) size 12{ \( N rSub { size 8{2} } \) } {} at this temperature.

Strategy for (a)

The known in the equation for the average kinetic energy is the temperature.

KE ¯ = 1 2 m v 2 ¯ = 3 2 kT KE ¯ = 1 2 m v 2 ¯ = 3 2 kT size 12{ {overline {"KE"}} = { {1} over {2} } m {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} = { {3} over {2} } ital "kT"} {}
13.57

Before substituting values into this equation, we must convert the given temperature to kelvins. This conversion gives T=(20.0+273)K = 293K.T=(20.0+273)K = 293K. size 12{T= \( "20" "." 0+"273" \) " K=293 K" "." } {}

Solution for (a)

The temperature alone is sufficient to find the average translational kinetic energy. Substituting the temperature into the translational kinetic energy equation gives

KE ¯ = 3 2 kT = 3 2 1 . 38 × 10 23 J/K 293 K = 6 . 07 × 10 21 J . KE ¯ = 3 2 kT = 3 2 1 . 38 × 10 23 J/K 293 K = 6 . 07 × 10 21 J . size 12{ {overline {"KE"}} = { {3} over {2} } ital "kT"= { {3} over {2} } left (1 "." "38" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - "23"} } " J/K" right ) left ("293"" K" right )=6 "." "07" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - "21"} } `J "." } {}
13.58

Strategy for (b)

Finding the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule involves a straightforward calculation using the equation

v 2 ¯ = v rms = 3 kT m , v 2 ¯ = v rms = 3 kT m , size 12{ sqrt { {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } =v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } = sqrt { { {3 ital "kT"} over {m} } } ,} {}
13.59

but we must first find the mass of a nitrogen molecule. Using the molecular mass of nitrogen N2N2 size 12{N rSub { size 8{2} } } {} from the periodic table,

m = 2 14 . 0067 × 10 3 kg/mol 6 . 02 × 10 23 mol 1 = 4 . 65 × 10 26 kg . m = 2 14 . 0067 × 10 3 kg/mol 6 . 02 × 10 23 mol 1 = 4 . 65 × 10 26 kg . size 12{m= { {2 left ("14" "." "0067" right ) times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } `"kg/mol"} over {6 "." "02" times "10" rSup { size 8{"23"} } `"mol" rSup { size 8{ - 1} } } } =4 "." "65" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - "26"} } `"kg" "." } {}
13.60

Solution for (b)

Substituting this mass and the value for kk size 12{k} {} into the equation for vrmsvrms size 12{v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {} yields

v rms = 3 kT m = 3 1 . 38 × 10 23 J/K 293 K 4 . 65 × 10 –26 kg = 511 m/s . v rms = 3 kT m = 3 1 . 38 × 10 23 J/K 293 K 4 . 65 × 10 –26 kg = 511 m/s . size 12{v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } = sqrt { { {3 ital "kT"} over {m} } } = sqrt { { {3 left (1 "." "38" times "10" rSup { size 8{–"23"} } " J/K" right ) left ("293 K" right )} over {4 "." "65" times "10" rSup { size 8{"–26"} } " kg"} } } ="511"" m/s" "." } {}
13.61

Discussion

Note that the average kinetic energy of the molecule is independent of the type of molecule. The average translational kinetic energy depends only on absolute temperature. The kinetic energy is very small compared to macroscopic energies, so that we do not feel when an air molecule is hitting our skin. The rms velocity of the nitrogen molecule is surprisingly large. These large molecular velocities do not yield macroscopic movement of air, since the molecules move in all directions with equal likelihood. The mean free path (the distance a molecule can move on average between collisions) of molecules in air is very small, and so the molecules move rapidly but do not get very far in a second. The high value for rms speed is reflected in the speed of sound, however, which is about 340 m/s at room temperature. The faster the rms speed of air molecules, the faster that sound vibrations can be transferred through the air. The speed of sound increases with temperature and is greater in gases with small molecular masses, such as helium. (See Figure 13.22.)

In part a of the figure, circles represent molecules distributed in a gas. Attached to each circle is a vector representing velocity. The circles have a random arrangement, while the vector arrows have random orientations and lengths. In part b of the figure, an arc represents a sound wave as it passes through a gas. The velocity of each molecule along the peak of the wave is roughly oriented parallel to the transmission direction of the wave.
Figure 13.22 (a) There are many molecules moving so fast in an ordinary gas that they collide a billion times every second. (b) Individual molecules do not move very far in a small amount of time, but disturbances like sound waves are transmitted at speeds related to the molecular speeds.

Making Connections: Historical Note—Kinetic Theory of Gases

The kinetic theory of gases was developed by Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782), who is best known in physics for his work on fluid flow (hydrodynamics). Bernoulli’s work predates the atomistic view of matter established by Dalton.

Distribution of Molecular Speeds

The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction for individual molecules, but a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds. This distribution is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, after its originators, who calculated it based on kinetic theory, and has since been confirmed experimentally. (See Figure 13.23.) The distribution has a long tail, because a few molecules may go several times the rms speed. The most probable speed vpvp size 12{v rSub { size 8{p} } } {} is less than the rms speed vrmsvrms size 12{v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {}. Figure 13.24 shows that the curve is shifted to higher speeds at higher temperatures, with a broader range of speeds.

A line graph of probability versus velocity in meters per second of oxygen gas at 300 kelvin. The graph is skewed to the right, with a peak probability just under 400 meters per second and a root-mean-square probability of about 500 meters per second.
Figure 13.23 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds in an ideal gas. The most likely speed vpvp size 12{v rSub { size 8{p} } } {} is less than the rms speed vrmsvrms size 12{v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {}. Although very high speeds are possible, only a tiny fraction of the molecules have speeds that are an order of magnitude greater than vrmsvrms size 12{v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {}.

The distribution of thermal speeds depends strongly on temperature. As temperature increases, the speeds are shifted to higher values and the distribution is broadened.

Two distributions of probability versus velocity at two different temperatures plotted on the same graph. Temperature two is greater than Temperature one. The distribution for Temperature two has a peak with a lower probability, but a higher velocity than the distribution for Temperature one. The T sub two graph has a more normal distribution and is broader while the T sub one graph is more narrow and has a tail extending to the right.
Figure 13.24 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is shifted to higher speeds and is broadened at higher temperatures.

What is the implication of the change in distribution with temperature shown in Figure 13.24 for humans? All other things being equal, if a person has a fever, he or she is likely to lose more water molecules, particularly from linings along moist cavities such as the lungs and mouth, creating a dry sensation in the mouth.

Example 13.11

Calculating Temperature: Escape Velocity of Helium Atoms

In order to escape Earth’s gravity, an object near the top of the atmosphere (at an altitude of 100 km) must travel away from Earth at 11.1 km/s. This speed is called the escape velocity. At what temperature would helium atoms have an rms speed equal to the escape velocity?

Strategy

Identify the knowns and unknowns and determine which equations to use to solve the problem.

Solution

1. Identify the knowns: vv size 12{v} {} is the escape velocity, 11.1 km/s.

2. Identify the unknowns: We need to solve for temperature, TT size 12{T} {}. We also need to solve for the mass mm size 12{m} {} of the helium atom.

3. Determine which equations are needed.

  • To solve for mass mm size 12{m} {} of the helium atom, we can use information from the periodic table:
    m=molar massnumber of atoms per mole.m=molar massnumber of atoms per mole. size 12{m= { { size 11{"molar mass"}} over { size 11{"number of atoms per mole"}} } } {}
    13.62
  • To solve for temperature TT size 12{T} {}, we can rearrange either
    KE ¯ = 1 2 m v 2 ¯ = 3 2 kT KE ¯ = 1 2 m v 2 ¯ = 3 2 kT size 12{ {overline {"KE"}} = { {1} over {2} } m {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} = { {3} over {2} } ital "kT"} {}
    13.63

    or

    v 2 ¯ = v rms = 3 kT m v 2 ¯ = v rms = 3 kT m size 12{ sqrt { {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } =v rSub { size 8{"rms"} } = sqrt { { {3 ital "kT"} over {m} } } } {}
    13.64

    to yield

    T = m v 2 ¯ 3k , T = m v 2 ¯ 3k , size 12{T= { {m {overline {v rSup { size 8{2} } }} } over {3k} } ,} {}
    13.65
    where kk size 12{k} {} is the Boltzmann constant and mm size 12{m} {} is the mass of a helium atom.

4. Plug the known values into the equations and solve for the unknowns.

m = molar mass number of atoms per mole = 4 . 0026 × 10 3 kg/mol 6 . 02 × 10 23 mol = 6 . 65 × 10 27 kg m = molar mass number of atoms per mole = 4 . 0026 × 10 3 kg/mol 6 . 02 × 10 23 mol = 6 . 65 × 10 27 kg size 12{m= { { size 11{"molar mass"}} over { size 11{"number of atoms per mole"}} } = { { size 11{4 "." "0026" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } " kg/mol"}} over { size 12{6 "." "02" times "10" rSup { size 8{"23"} } " mol"} } } =6 "." "65" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - "27"} } " kg"} {}
13.66
T = 6 . 65 × 10 27 kg 11 . 1 × 10 3 m/s 2 3 1 . 38 × 10 23 J/K = 1 . 98 × 10 4 K T = 6 . 65 × 10 27 kg 11 . 1 × 10 3 m/s 2 3 1 . 38 × 10 23 J/K = 1 . 98 × 10 4 K size 12{T= { { left (6 "." "65" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - "27"} } `"kg" right ) left ("11" "." 1 times "10" rSup { size 8{3} } `"m/s" right ) rSup { size 8{2} } } over {3 left (1 "." "38" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - "23"} } `"J/K" right )} } =1 "." "98" times "10" rSup { size 8{4} } `K} {}
13.67

Discussion

This temperature is much higher than atmospheric temperature, which is approximately 250 K (25ºC(25ºC size 12{ \( –"25"°C} {} or 10ºF)10ºF) size 12{–"10"°F \) } {} at high altitude. Very few helium atoms are left in the atmosphere, but there were many when the atmosphere was formed. The reason for the loss of helium atoms is that there are a small number of helium atoms with speeds higher than Earth’s escape velocity even at normal temperatures. The speed of a helium atom changes from one instant to the next, so that at any instant, there is a small, but nonzero chance that the speed is greater than the escape speed and the molecule escapes from Earth’s gravitational pull. Heavier molecules, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and water (very little of which reach a very high altitude), have smaller rms speeds, and so it is much less likely that any of them will have speeds greater than the escape velocity. In fact, so few have speeds above the escape velocity that billions of years are required to lose significant amounts of the atmosphere. Figure 13.25 shows the impact of a lack of an atmosphere on the Moon. Because the gravitational pull of the Moon is much weaker, it has lost almost its entire atmosphere. The comparison between Earth and the Moon is discussed in this chapter’s Problems and Exercises.

Photograph of the lunar rover on the Moon. The photo looks like it was taken at night with a powerful spotlight shining on the rover from the left: light reflects off the rover, the astronaut, and the Moon’s surface, but the sky is black. The shadow of the rover is very sharp.
Figure 13.25 This photograph of Apollo 17 Commander Eugene Cernan driving the lunar rover on the Moon in 1972 looks as though it was taken at night with a large spotlight. In fact, the light is coming from the Sun. Because the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon is so low (about 1/6 that of Earth), the Moon’s escape velocity is much smaller. As a result, gas molecules escape very easily from the Moon, leaving it with virtually no atmosphere. Even during the daytime, the sky is black because there is no gas to scatter sunlight. (credit: Harrison H. Schmitt/NASA)

Check Your Understanding

If you consider a very small object such as a grain of pollen, in a gas, then the number of atoms and molecules striking its surface would also be relatively small. Would the grain of pollen experience any fluctuations in pressure due to statistical fluctuations in the number of gas atoms and molecules striking it in a given amount of time?

PhET Explorations

Gas Properties

Pump gas molecules into a box and see what happens as you change the volume, add or remove heat, change gravity, and more. Measure the temperature and pressure, and discover how the properties of the gas vary in relation to each other.

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