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College Physics

12.1 Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity

College Physics12.1 Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity

Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
    1. Introduction to Science and the Realm of Physics, Physical Quantities, and Units
    2. 1.1 Physics: An Introduction
    3. 1.2 Physical Quantities and Units
    4. 1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures
    5. 1.4 Approximation
    6. Glossary
    7. Section Summary
    8. Conceptual Questions
    9. Problems & Exercises
  3. 2 Kinematics
    1. Introduction to One-Dimensional Kinematics
    2. 2.1 Displacement
    3. 2.2 Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems
    4. 2.3 Time, Velocity, and Speed
    5. 2.4 Acceleration
    6. 2.5 Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension
    7. 2.6 Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics
    8. 2.7 Falling Objects
    9. 2.8 Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  4. 3 Two-Dimensional Kinematics
    1. Introduction to Two-Dimensional Kinematics
    2. 3.1 Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction
    3. 3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods
    4. 3.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods
    5. 3.4 Projectile Motion
    6. 3.5 Addition of Velocities
    7. Glossary
    8. Section Summary
    9. Conceptual Questions
    10. Problems & Exercises
  5. 4 Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion
    1. Introduction to Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion
    2. 4.1 Development of Force Concept
    3. 4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia
    4. 4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System
    5. 4.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces
    6. 4.5 Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces
    7. 4.6 Problem-Solving Strategies
    8. 4.7 Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
    9. 4.8 Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  6. 5 Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity
    1. Introduction: Further Applications of Newton’s Laws
    2. 5.1 Friction
    3. 5.2 Drag Forces
    4. 5.3 Elasticity: Stress and Strain
    5. Glossary
    6. Section Summary
    7. Conceptual Questions
    8. Problems & Exercises
  7. 6 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
    1. Introduction to Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
    2. 6.1 Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity
    3. 6.2 Centripetal Acceleration
    4. 6.3 Centripetal Force
    5. 6.4 Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force
    6. 6.5 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
    7. 6.6 Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  8. 7 Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
    1. Introduction to Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
    2. 7.1 Work: The Scientific Definition
    3. 7.2 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem
    4. 7.3 Gravitational Potential Energy
    5. 7.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
    6. 7.5 Nonconservative Forces
    7. 7.6 Conservation of Energy
    8. 7.7 Power
    9. 7.8 Work, Energy, and Power in Humans
    10. 7.9 World Energy Use
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  9. 8 Linear Momentum and Collisions
    1. Introduction to Linear Momentum and Collisions
    2. 8.1 Linear Momentum and Force
    3. 8.2 Impulse
    4. 8.3 Conservation of Momentum
    5. 8.4 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
    6. 8.5 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension
    7. 8.6 Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions
    8. 8.7 Introduction to Rocket Propulsion
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  10. 9 Statics and Torque
    1. Introduction to Statics and Torque
    2. 9.1 The First Condition for Equilibrium
    3. 9.2 The Second Condition for Equilibrium
    4. 9.3 Stability
    5. 9.4 Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies
    6. 9.5 Simple Machines
    7. 9.6 Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  11. 10 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
    1. Introduction to Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
    2. 10.1 Angular Acceleration
    3. 10.2 Kinematics of Rotational Motion
    4. 10.3 Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia
    5. 10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited
    6. 10.5 Angular Momentum and Its Conservation
    7. 10.6 Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions
    8. 10.7 Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  12. 11 Fluid Statics
    1. Introduction to Fluid Statics
    2. 11.1 What Is a Fluid?
    3. 11.2 Density
    4. 11.3 Pressure
    5. 11.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
    6. 11.5 Pascal’s Principle
    7. 11.6 Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement
    8. 11.7 Archimedes’ Principle
    9. 11.8 Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action
    10. 11.9 Pressures in the Body
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  13. 12 Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
    1. Introduction to Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
    2. 12.1 Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity
    3. 12.2 Bernoulli’s Equation
    4. 12.3 The Most General Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
    5. 12.4 Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law
    6. 12.5 The Onset of Turbulence
    7. 12.6 Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid
    8. 12.7 Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  14. 13 Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
    1. Introduction to Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
    2. 13.1 Temperature
    3. 13.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
    4. 13.3 The Ideal Gas Law
    5. 13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature
    6. 13.5 Phase Changes
    7. 13.6 Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  15. 14 Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
    1. Introduction to Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
    2. 14.1 Heat
    3. 14.2 Temperature Change and Heat Capacity
    4. 14.3 Phase Change and Latent Heat
    5. 14.4 Heat Transfer Methods
    6. 14.5 Conduction
    7. 14.6 Convection
    8. 14.7 Radiation
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  16. 15 Thermodynamics
    1. Introduction to Thermodynamics
    2. 15.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
    3. 15.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes
    4. 15.3 Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency
    5. 15.4 Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated
    6. 15.5 Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
    7. 15.6 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy
    8. 15.7 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Underlying Explanation
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  17. 16 Oscillatory Motion and Waves
    1. Introduction to Oscillatory Motion and Waves
    2. 16.1 Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited
    3. 16.2 Period and Frequency in Oscillations
    4. 16.3 Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion
    5. 16.4 The Simple Pendulum
    6. 16.5 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
    7. 16.6 Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion
    8. 16.7 Damped Harmonic Motion
    9. 16.8 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
    10. 16.9 Waves
    11. 16.10 Superposition and Interference
    12. 16.11 Energy in Waves: Intensity
    13. Glossary
    14. Section Summary
    15. Conceptual Questions
    16. Problems & Exercises
  18. 17 Physics of Hearing
    1. Introduction to the Physics of Hearing
    2. 17.1 Sound
    3. 17.2 Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength
    4. 17.3 Sound Intensity and Sound Level
    5. 17.4 Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
    6. 17.5 Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns
    7. 17.6 Hearing
    8. 17.7 Ultrasound
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  19. 18 Electric Charge and Electric Field
    1. Introduction to Electric Charge and Electric Field
    2. 18.1 Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge
    3. 18.2 Conductors and Insulators
    4. 18.3 Coulomb’s Law
    5. 18.4 Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited
    6. 18.5 Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges
    7. 18.6 Electric Forces in Biology
    8. 18.7 Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium
    9. 18.8 Applications of Electrostatics
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  20. 19 Electric Potential and Electric Field
    1. Introduction to Electric Potential and Electric Energy
    2. 19.1 Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference
    3. 19.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field
    4. 19.3 Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge
    5. 19.4 Equipotential Lines
    6. 19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics
    7. 19.6 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
    8. 19.7 Energy Stored in Capacitors
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  21. 20 Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
    1. Introduction to Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
    2. 20.1 Current
    3. 20.2 Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits
    4. 20.3 Resistance and Resistivity
    5. 20.4 Electric Power and Energy
    6. 20.5 Alternating Current versus Direct Current
    7. 20.6 Electric Hazards and the Human Body
    8. 20.7 Nerve Conduction–Electrocardiograms
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  22. 21 Circuits and DC Instruments
    1. Introduction to Circuits and DC Instruments
    2. 21.1 Resistors in Series and Parallel
    3. 21.2 Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage
    4. 21.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
    5. 21.4 DC Voltmeters and Ammeters
    6. 21.5 Null Measurements
    7. 21.6 DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  23. 22 Magnetism
    1. Introduction to Magnetism
    2. 22.1 Magnets
    3. 22.2 Ferromagnets and Electromagnets
    4. 22.3 Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines
    5. 22.4 Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field
    6. 22.5 Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications
    7. 22.6 The Hall Effect
    8. 22.7 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
    9. 22.8 Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters
    10. 22.9 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law
    11. 22.10 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors
    12. 22.11 More Applications of Magnetism
    13. Glossary
    14. Section Summary
    15. Conceptual Questions
    16. Problems & Exercises
  24. 23 Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies
    1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits and Electrical Technologies
    2. 23.1 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
    3. 23.2 Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
    4. 23.3 Motional Emf
    5. 23.4 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping
    6. 23.5 Electric Generators
    7. 23.6 Back Emf
    8. 23.7 Transformers
    9. 23.8 Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices
    10. 23.9 Inductance
    11. 23.10 RL Circuits
    12. 23.11 Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive
    13. 23.12 RLC Series AC Circuits
    14. Glossary
    15. Section Summary
    16. Conceptual Questions
    17. Problems & Exercises
  25. 24 Electromagnetic Waves
    1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves
    2. 24.1 Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed
    3. 24.2 Production of Electromagnetic Waves
    4. 24.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
    5. 24.4 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
    6. Glossary
    7. Section Summary
    8. Conceptual Questions
    9. Problems & Exercises
  26. 25 Geometric Optics
    1. Introduction to Geometric Optics
    2. 25.1 The Ray Aspect of Light
    3. 25.2 The Law of Reflection
    4. 25.3 The Law of Refraction
    5. 25.4 Total Internal Reflection
    6. 25.5 Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms
    7. 25.6 Image Formation by Lenses
    8. 25.7 Image Formation by Mirrors
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  27. 26 Vision and Optical Instruments
    1. Introduction to Vision and Optical Instruments
    2. 26.1 Physics of the Eye
    3. 26.2 Vision Correction
    4. 26.3 Color and Color Vision
    5. 26.4 Microscopes
    6. 26.5 Telescopes
    7. 26.6 Aberrations
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  28. 27 Wave Optics
    1. Introduction to Wave Optics
    2. 27.1 The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference
    3. 27.2 Huygens's Principle: Diffraction
    4. 27.3 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
    5. 27.4 Multiple Slit Diffraction
    6. 27.5 Single Slit Diffraction
    7. 27.6 Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion
    8. 27.7 Thin Film Interference
    9. 27.8 Polarization
    10. 27.9 *Extended Topic* Microscopy Enhanced by the Wave Characteristics of Light
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  29. 28 Special Relativity
    1. Introduction to Special Relativity
    2. 28.1 Einstein’s Postulates
    3. 28.2 Simultaneity And Time Dilation
    4. 28.3 Length Contraction
    5. 28.4 Relativistic Addition of Velocities
    6. 28.5 Relativistic Momentum
    7. 28.6 Relativistic Energy
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  30. 29 Quantum Physics
    1. Introduction to Quantum Physics
    2. 29.1 Quantization of Energy
    3. 29.2 The Photoelectric Effect
    4. 29.3 Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
    5. 29.4 Photon Momentum
    6. 29.5 The Particle-Wave Duality
    7. 29.6 The Wave Nature of Matter
    8. 29.7 Probability: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
    9. 29.8 The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed
    10. Glossary
    11. Section Summary
    12. Conceptual Questions
    13. Problems & Exercises
  31. 30 Atomic Physics
    1. Introduction to Atomic Physics
    2. 30.1 Discovery of the Atom
    3. 30.2 Discovery of the Parts of the Atom: Electrons and Nuclei
    4. 30.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
    5. 30.4 X Rays: Atomic Origins and Applications
    6. 30.5 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations
    7. 30.6 The Wave Nature of Matter Causes Quantization
    8. 30.7 Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization
    9. 30.8 Quantum Numbers and Rules
    10. 30.9 The Pauli Exclusion Principle
    11. Glossary
    12. Section Summary
    13. Conceptual Questions
    14. Problems & Exercises
  32. 31 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
    1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
    2. 31.1 Nuclear Radioactivity
    3. 31.2 Radiation Detection and Detectors
    4. 31.3 Substructure of the Nucleus
    5. 31.4 Nuclear Decay and Conservation Laws
    6. 31.5 Half-Life and Activity
    7. 31.6 Binding Energy
    8. 31.7 Tunneling
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  33. 32 Medical Applications of Nuclear Physics
    1. Introduction to Applications of Nuclear Physics
    2. 32.1 Medical Imaging and Diagnostics
    3. 32.2 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
    4. 32.3 Therapeutic Uses of Ionizing Radiation
    5. 32.4 Food Irradiation
    6. 32.5 Fusion
    7. 32.6 Fission
    8. 32.7 Nuclear Weapons
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  34. 33 Particle Physics
    1. Introduction to Particle Physics
    2. 33.1 The Yukawa Particle and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Revisited
    3. 33.2 The Four Basic Forces
    4. 33.3 Accelerators Create Matter from Energy
    5. 33.4 Particles, Patterns, and Conservation Laws
    6. 33.5 Quarks: Is That All There Is?
    7. 33.6 GUTs: The Unification of Forces
    8. Glossary
    9. Section Summary
    10. Conceptual Questions
    11. Problems & Exercises
  35. 34 Frontiers of Physics
    1. Introduction to Frontiers of Physics
    2. 34.1 Cosmology and Particle Physics
    3. 34.2 General Relativity and Quantum Gravity
    4. 34.3 Superstrings
    5. 34.4 Dark Matter and Closure
    6. 34.5 Complexity and Chaos
    7. 34.6 High-temperature Superconductors
    8. 34.7 Some Questions We Know to Ask
    9. Glossary
    10. Section Summary
    11. Conceptual Questions
    12. Problems & Exercises
  36. A | Atomic Masses
  37. B | Selected Radioactive Isotopes
  38. C | Useful Information
  39. D | Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation
  40. Index

Flow rate QQ size 12{Q} {} is defined to be the volume of fluid passing by some location through an area during a period of time, as seen in Figure 12.2. In symbols, this can be written as

Q=Vt,Q=Vt, size 12{Q= { {V} over {t} } } {}
12.1

where VV size 12{V} {} is the volume and tt size 12{t} {} is the elapsed time.

The SI unit for flow rate is m3/sm3/s size 12{m rSup { size 8{3} } "/s"} {}, but a number of other units for QQ size 12{Q} {} are in common use. For example, the heart of a resting adult pumps blood at a rate of 5.00 liters per minute (L/min). Note that a liter (L) is 1/1000 of a cubic meter or 1000 cubic centimeters (103m3103m3 size 12{"10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } `m rSup { size 8{3} } } {} or 103cm3103cm3 size 12{"10" rSup { size 8{3} } `"cm" rSup { size 8{3} } } {}). In this text we shall use whatever metric units are most convenient for a given situation.

The figure shows a fluid flowing through a cylindrical pipe open at both ends. A portion of the cylindrical pipe with the fluid is shaded for a length d. The velocity of the fluid in the shaded region is shown by v toward the right. The cross sections of the shaded cylinder are marked as A. This cylinder of fluid flows past a point P on the cylindrical pipe. The velocity v is equal to d over t.
Figure 12.2 Flow rate is the volume of fluid per unit time flowing past a point through the area AA size 12{A} {}. Here the shaded cylinder of fluid flows past point PP size 12{P} {} in a uniform pipe in time tt size 12{t} {}. The volume of the cylinder is AdAd size 12{ ital "Ad"} {} and the average velocity is v ¯ =d/t v ¯ =d/t size 12{ {overline {v}} =d/t} {} so that the flow rate is Q=Ad/t=A v ¯ Q=Ad/t=A v ¯ size 12{Q= ital "Ad"/t=A {overline {v}} } {}.

Example 12.1

Calculating Volume from Flow Rate: The Heart Pumps a Lot of Blood in a Lifetime

How many cubic meters of blood does the heart pump in a 75-year lifetime, assuming the average flow rate is 5.00 L/min?

Strategy

Time and flow rate QQ size 12{Q} {} are given, and so the volume VV size 12{V} {} can be calculated from the definition of flow rate.

Solution

Solving Q=V/tQ=V/t size 12{Q=V/t} {} for volume gives

V=Qt.V=Qt. size 12{V= ital "Qt"} {}
12.2

Substituting known values yields

V = 5.00L1 min(75y)1m3103L5.26×105miny = 2.0×105 m3. V = 5.00L1 min(75y)1m3103L5.26×105miny = 2.0×105 m3. alignl { stack { size 12{V= left ( { {5 "." "00"" L"} over {"1 min"} } right ) \( "75"" y" \) left ( { {1" m" rSup { size 8{3} } } over {"10" rSup { size 8{3} } " L"} } right ) left (5 "." "26" times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } { {"min"} over {y} } right )} {} # " "=2 "." 0 times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " m" rSup { size 8{3} } {} } } {}
12.3

Discussion

This amount is about 200,000 tons of blood. For comparison, this value is equivalent to about 200 times the volume of water contained in a 6-lane 50-m lap pool.

Flow rate and velocity are related, but quite different, physical quantities. To make the distinction clear, think about the flow rate of a river. The greater the velocity of the water, the greater the flow rate of the river. But flow rate also depends on the size of the river. A rapid mountain stream carries far less water than the Amazon River in Brazil, for example. The precise relationship between flow rate QQ size 12{Q} {} and velocity v ¯ v ¯ size 12{ {overline {v}} } {} is

Q = A v ¯ , Q = A v ¯ , size 12{Q=A {overline {v}} } {}
12.4

where AA size 12{A} {} is the cross-sectional area and v ¯ v ¯ size 12{ {overline {v}} } {} is the average velocity. This equation seems logical enough. The relationship tells us that flow rate is directly proportional to both the magnitude of the average velocity (hereafter referred to as the speed) and the size of a river, pipe, or other conduit. The larger the conduit, the greater its cross-sectional area. Figure 12.2 illustrates how this relationship is obtained. The shaded cylinder has a volume

V=Ad,V=Ad, size 12{V= ital "Ad"} {}
12.5

which flows past the point PP size 12{P} {} in a time tt size 12{t} {}. Dividing both sides of this relationship by tt size 12{t} {} gives

Vt=Adt.Vt=Adt. size 12{ { {V} over {t} } = { { ital "Ad"} over {t} } } {}
12.6

We note that Q=V/tQ=V/t size 12{Q=V/t} {} and the average speed is v ¯ =d/t v ¯ =d/t size 12{ {overline {v}} =d/t} {}. Thus the equation becomes Q=A v ¯ Q=A v ¯ size 12{Q=A {overline {v}} } {}.

Figure 12.3 shows an incompressible fluid flowing along a pipe of decreasing radius. Because the fluid is incompressible, the same amount of fluid must flow past any point in the tube in a given time to ensure continuity of flow. In this case, because the cross-sectional area of the pipe decreases, the velocity must necessarily increase. This logic can be extended to say that the flow rate must be the same at all points along the pipe. In particular, for points 1 and 2,

Q 1 = Q 2 A 1 v ¯ 1 = A 2 v ¯ 2 } . Q 1 = Q 2 A 1 v ¯ 1 = A 2 v ¯ 2 } . size 12{ left none matrix { Q rSub { size 8{1} } =Q rSub { size 8{2} } {} ## A rSub { size 8{1} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} =A rSub { size 8{2} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} } right rbrace "." } {}
12.7

This is called the equation of continuity and is valid for any incompressible fluid. The consequences of the equation of continuity can be observed when water flows from a hose into a narrow spray nozzle: it emerges with a large speed—that is the purpose of the nozzle. Conversely, when a river empties into one end of a reservoir, the water slows considerably, perhaps picking up speed again when it leaves the other end of the reservoir. In other words, speed increases when cross-sectional area decreases, and speed decreases when cross-sectional area increases.

The figure shows a cylindrical tube broad at the left and narrow at the right. The fluid is shown to flow through the cylindrical tube toward right along the axis of the tube. A shaded area is marked on the broader cylinder on the left. A cross section is marked on it as A one. A point one is marked on this cross section. The velocity of the fluid through the shaded area on narrow tube is marked by v one as an arrow toward right. Another shaded area is marked on the narrow cylindrical on the right. The shaded area on narrow tube is longer than the one on broader tube to show that when a tube narrows, the same volume occupies a greater length. A cross section is marked on the narrow cylindrical tube as A two. A point two is marked on this cross section. The velocity of fluid through the shaded area on narrow tube is marked v two toward right. The arrow depicting v two is longer than for v one showing v two to be greater in value than v one.
Figure 12.3 When a tube narrows, the same volume occupies a greater length. For the same volume to pass points 1 and 2 in a given time, the speed must be greater at point 2. The process is exactly reversible. If the fluid flows in the opposite direction, its speed will decrease when the tube widens. (Note that the relative volumes of the two cylinders and the corresponding velocity vector arrows are not drawn to scale.)

Since liquids are essentially incompressible, the equation of continuity is valid for all liquids. However, gases are compressible, and so the equation must be applied with caution to gases if they are subjected to compression or expansion.

Example 12.2

Calculating Fluid Speed: Speed Increases When a Tube Narrows

A nozzle with a radius of 0.250 cm is attached to a garden hose with a radius of 0.900 cm. The flow rate through hose and nozzle is 0.500 L/s. Calculate the speed of the water (a) in the hose and (b) in the nozzle.

Strategy

We can use the relationship between flow rate and speed to find both velocities. We will use the subscript 1 for the hose and 2 for the nozzle.

Solution for (a)

First, we solve Q=A v ¯ Q=A v ¯ size 12{Q=A {overline {v}} } {} for v1v1 size 12{v rSub { size 8{1} } } {} and note that the cross-sectional area is A=πr2A=πr2 size 12{A=πr rSup { size 8{2} } } {}, yielding

v ¯ 1=QA1=Q πr 1 2 . v ¯ 1=QA1=Q πr 1 2 . size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} = { {Q} over {A rSub { size 8{1} } } } = { {Q} over {πr rSub { size 8{1} rSup { size 8{2} } } } } } {}
12.8

Substituting known values and making appropriate unit conversions yields

v ¯ 1=(0.500L/s)(103m3/L)π(9.00×103m)2=1.96m/s. v ¯ 1=(0.500L/s)(103m3/L)π(9.00×103m)2=1.96m/s. size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} = { { \( 0 "." "500"" L/s" \) \( "10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } " m" rSup { size 8{3} } /L \) } over {π \( 9 "." "00" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } " m" \) rSup { size 8{2} } } } =1 "." "96"" m/s"} {}
12.9

Solution for (b)

We could repeat this calculation to find the speed in the nozzle v ¯ 2 v ¯ 2 size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} } {}, but we will use the equation of continuity to give a somewhat different insight. Using the equation which states

A1 v ¯ 1=A2 v ¯ 2,A1 v ¯ 1=A2 v ¯ 2, size 12{A rSub { size 8{1} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} =A rSub { size 8{2} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} } {}
12.10

solving for v ¯ 2 v ¯ 2 size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} } {} and substituting πr2πr2 size 12{πr rSup { size 8{2} } } {} for the cross-sectional area yields

v ¯ 2=A1A2 v ¯ 1= πr 1 2 πr 2 2 v ¯ 1=r12r22 v ¯ 1. v ¯ 2=A1A2 v ¯ 1= πr 1 2 πr 2 2 v ¯ 1=r12r22 v ¯ 1. size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} = { {A rSub { size 8{1} } } over {A rSub { size 8{2} } } } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} = { {πr rSub { size 8{1} rSup { size 8{2} } } } over {πr rSub { size 8{2} rSup { size 8{2} } } } } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} = { {r rSub { size 8{1} rSup { size 8{2} } } } over {r rSub { size 8{2} rSup { size 8{2} } } } } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} } {}
12.11

Substituting known values,

v ¯ 2=(0.900cm)2(0.250cm)21.96m/s=25.5 m/s. v ¯ 2=(0.900cm)2(0.250cm)21.96m/s=25.5 m/s. size 12{ {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} = { { \( 0 "." "900"" cm" \) rSup { size 8{2} } } over { \( 0 "." "250"" cm" \) rSup { size 8{2} } } } 1 "." "96"" m/s"="25" "." "5 m/s"} {}
12.12

Discussion

A speed of 1.96 m/s is about right for water emerging from a nozzleless hose. The nozzle produces a considerably faster stream merely by constricting the flow to a narrower tube.

The solution to the last part of the example shows that speed is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the tube, making for large effects when radius varies. We can blow out a candle at quite a distance, for example, by pursing our lips, whereas blowing on a candle with our mouth wide open is quite ineffective.

In many situations, including in the cardiovascular system, branching of the flow occurs. The blood is pumped from the heart into arteries that subdivide into smaller arteries (arterioles) which branch into very fine vessels called capillaries. In this situation, continuity of flow is maintained but it is the sum of the flow rates in each of the branches in any portion along the tube that is maintained. The equation of continuity in a more general form becomes

n1A1 v ¯ 1=n2A2 v ¯ 2,n1A1 v ¯ 1=n2A2 v ¯ 2, size 12{n rSub { size 8{1} } A rSub { size 8{1} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} =n rSub { size 8{2} } A rSub { size 8{2} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} } {}
12.13

where n1n1 size 12{n rSub { size 8{1} } } {} and n2n2 size 12{n rSub { size 8{2} } } {} are the number of branches in each of the sections along the tube.

Example 12.3

Calculating Flow Speed and Vessel Diameter: Branching in the Cardiovascular System

The aorta is the principal blood vessel through which blood leaves the heart in order to circulate around the body. (a) Calculate the average speed of the blood in the aorta if the flow rate is 5.0 L/min. The aorta has a radius of 10 mm. (b) Blood also flows through smaller blood vessels known as capillaries. When the rate of blood flow in the aorta is 5.0 L/min, the speed of blood in the capillaries is about 0.33 mm/s. Given that the average diameter of a capillary is 8.0μm8.0μm, calculate the number of capillaries in the blood circulatory system.

Strategy

We can use Q=A v ¯ Q=A v ¯ size 12{Q=A {overline {v}} } {} to calculate the speed of flow in the aorta and then use the general form of the equation of continuity to calculate the number of capillaries as all of the other variables are known.

Solution for (a)

The flow rate is given by Q=A v ¯ Q=A v ¯ size 12{Q=A {overline {v}} } {} or v ¯ =Qπr2 v ¯ =Qπr2 size 12{ {overline {v}} = { {Q} over {πr rSup { size 8{2} } } } } {} for a cylindrical vessel.

Substituting the known values (converted to units of meters and seconds) gives

v ¯ = 5.0 L/min 10 3 m 3 /L 1 min/ 60 s π 0 . 010 m 2 = 0 . 27 m/s . v ¯ = 5.0 L/min 10 3 m 3 /L 1 min/ 60 s π 0 . 010 m 2 = 0 . 27 m/s . size 12{ { bar {v}}= { { left (5 "." 0`"L/min" right ) left ("10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } `m rSup { size 8{3} } "/L" right ) left (1`"min/""60"`s right )} over {π left (0 "." "010 m" right ) rSup { size 8{2} } } } =0 "." "27"`"m/s"} {}
12.14

Solution for (b)

Using n1A1 v ¯ 1=n2A2 v ¯ 1n1A1 v ¯ 1=n2A2 v ¯ 1 size 12{n rSub { size 8{1} } A rSub { size 8{1} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{1} } }} =n rSub { size 8{2} } A rSub { size 8{2} } {overline {v rSub { size 8{2} } }} } {}, assigning the subscript 1 to the aorta and 2 to the capillaries, and solving for n2n2 size 12{n rSub { size 8{2} } } {} (the number of capillaries) gives n2= n 1 A 1 v ¯ 1 A 2 v ¯ 2 n2= n 1 A 1 v ¯ 1 A 2 v ¯ 2 . Converting all quantities to units of meters and seconds and substituting into the equation above gives

n 2 = 1 π 10 × 10 3 m 2 0.27 m/s π 4.0 × 10 6 m 2 0.33 × 10 3 m/s = 5.0 × 10 9 capillaries . n 2 = 1 π 10 × 10 3 m 2 0.27 m/s π 4.0 × 10 6 m 2 0.33 × 10 3 m/s = 5.0 × 10 9 capillaries . size 12{n rSub { size 8{2} } = { { left (1 right ) left (π right ) left ("10" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } " m" right ) rSup { size 8{2} } left (0 "." "27"" m/s" right )} over { left (π right ) left (4 "." 0 times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 6} } " m" right ) rSup { size 8{2} } left (0 "." "33" times "10" rSup { size 8{ - 3} } " m/s" right )} } =5 "." 0 times "10" rSup { size 8{9} } " capillaries"} {}
12.15

Discussion

Note that the speed of flow in the capillaries is considerably reduced relative to the speed in the aorta due to the significant increase in the total cross-sectional area at the capillaries. This low speed is to allow sufficient time for effective exchange to occur although it is equally important for the flow not to become stationary in order to avoid the possibility of clotting. Does this large number of capillaries in the body seem reasonable? In active muscle, one finds about 200 capillaries per mm3mm3 size 12{"mm" rSup { size 8{3} } } {}, or about 200×106200×106 size 12{"200" times "10" rSup { size 8{6} } } {} per 1 kg of muscle. For 20 kg of muscle, this amounts to about 4×1094×109 size 12{4 times "10" rSup { size 8{9} } } {} capillaries.

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