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3.1 Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction

  • The shortest path between any two points is a straight line. In two dimensions, this path can be represented by a vector with horizontal and vertical components.
  • The horizontal and vertical components of a vector are independent of one another. Motion in the horizontal direction does not affect motion in the vertical direction, and vice versa.

3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods

  • The graphical method of adding vectors AA and BB involves drawing vectors on a graph and adding them using the head-to-tail method. The resultant vector RR is defined such that A+B=RA+B=R. The magnitude and direction of RR are then determined with a ruler and protractor, respectively.
  • The graphical method of subtracting vector B B from AA involves adding the opposite of vector BB, which is defined as BB. In this case, AB=A+(–B)=RAB=A+(–B)=R. Then, the head-to-tail method of addition is followed in the usual way to obtain the resultant vector RR.
  • Addition of vectors is commutative such that A+B=B+AA+B=B+A .
  • The head-to-tail method of adding vectors involves drawing the first vector on a graph and then placing the tail of each subsequent vector at the head of the previous vector. The resultant vector is then drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the final vector.
  • If a vector AA is multiplied by a scalar quantity cc, the magnitude of the product is given by cAcA. If cc is positive, the direction of the product points in the same direction as AA; if cc is negative, the direction of the product points in the opposite direction as AA.

3.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods

  • The analytical method of vector addition and subtraction involves using the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric identities to determine the magnitude and direction of a resultant vector.
  • The steps to add vectors AA and BB using the analytical method are as follows:

    Step 1: Determine the coordinate system for the vectors. Then, determine the horizontal and vertical components of each vector using the equations

    A x = A cos θ B x = B cos θ A x = A cos θ B x = B cos θ

    and

    A y = A sin θ By = B sin θ . A y = A sin θ By = B sin θ .

    Step 2: Add the horizontal and vertical components of each vector to determine the components RxRx and RyRy of the resultant vector, RR:

    R x = A x + B x R x = A x + B x

    and

    Ry=Ay+By.Ry=Ay+By.

    Step 3: Use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the magnitude, RR, of the resultant vector RR:

    R=Rx2+Ry2.R=Rx2+Ry2.

    Step 4: Use a trigonometric identity to determine the direction, θθ, of RR:

    θ=tan1(Ry/Rx).θ=tan1(Ry/Rx).

3.4 Projectile Motion

  • Projectile motion is the motion of an object through the air that is subject only to the acceleration of gravity.
  • To solve projectile motion problems, perform the following steps:
    1. Determine a coordinate system. Then, resolve the position and/or velocity of the object in the horizontal and vertical components. The components of position ss are given by the quantities xx and yy, and the components of the velocity vv are given by vx=vcosθvx=vcosθ and vy=vsinθvy=vsinθ, where vv is the magnitude of the velocity and θθ is its direction.
    2. Analyze the motion of the projectile in the horizontal direction using the following equations:
      Horizontal motion ( a x = 0 ) Horizontal motion ( a x = 0 )
      x = x 0 + v x t x = x 0 + v x t
      vx=v0x= v x =velocity is a constant.vx=v0x= v x =velocity is a constant.
    3. Analyze the motion of the projectile in the vertical direction using the following equations:
      Vertical Motion ( assuming positive is up a y = g = 9. 80 m/s 2 ) Vertical Motion ( assuming positive is up a y = g = 9. 80 m/s 2 )
      y = y 0 + 1 2 ( v 0y + v y ) t y = y 0 + 1 2 ( v 0y + v y ) t
      v y = v 0 y gt v y = v 0 y gt
      y = y 0 + v 0 y t 1 2 gt 2 y = y 0 + v 0 y t 1 2 gt 2
      vy2=v0y22g(yy0).vy2=v0y22g(yy0).
    4. Recombine the horizontal and vertical components of location and/or velocity using the following equations:
      s = x 2 + y 2 s = x 2 + y 2
      θ = tan 1 ( y / x ) θ = tan 1 ( y / x )
      v = v x 2 + v y 2 v = v x 2 + v y 2
      θv=tan1(vy/vx).θv=tan1(vy/vx).
  • The maximum height hh of a projectile launched with initial vertical velocity v0yv0y is given by
    h=v0y22g.h=v0y22g.
  • The maximum horizontal distance traveled by a projectile is called the range. The range RR of a projectile on level ground launched at an angle θ0θ0 above the horizontal with initial speed v0v0 is given by
    R=v02sin2θ0g.R=v02sin2θ0g.

3.5 Addition of Velocities

  • Velocities in two dimensions are added using the same analytical vector techniques, which are rewritten as
    v x = v cos θ v x = v cos θ
    v y = v sin θ v y = v sin θ
    v = v x 2 + v y 2 v = v x 2 + v y 2
    θ=tan1(vy/vx).θ=tan1(vy/vx).
  • Relative velocity is the velocity of an object as observed from a particular reference frame, and it varies dramatically with reference frame.
  • Relativity is the study of how different observers measure the same phenomenon, particularly when the observers move relative to one another. Classical relativity is limited to situations where speed is less than about 1% of the speed of light (3000 km/s).
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