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Chemistry: Atoms First

B | Essential Mathematics

Chemistry: Atoms FirstB | Essential Mathematics

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Essential Ideas
    1. Introduction
    2. 1.1 Chemistry in Context
    3. 1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter
    4. 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
    5. 1.4 Measurements
    6. 1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
    7. 1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  3. 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
    1. Introduction
    2. 2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
    3. 2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
    4. 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
    5. 2.4 Chemical Formulas
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  4. 3 Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements
    1. Introduction
    2. 3.1 Electromagnetic Energy
    3. 3.2 The Bohr Model
    4. 3.3 Development of Quantum Theory
    5. 3.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)
    6. 3.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties
    7. 3.6 The Periodic Table
    8. 3.7 Molecular and Ionic Compounds
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  5. 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
    1. Introduction
    2. 4.1 Ionic Bonding
    3. 4.2 Covalent Bonding
    4. 4.3 Chemical Nomenclature
    5. 4.4 Lewis Symbols and Structures
    6. 4.5 Formal Charges and Resonance
    7. 4.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  6. 5 Advanced Theories of Bonding
    1. Introduction
    2. 5.1 Valence Bond Theory
    3. 5.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
    4. 5.3 Multiple Bonds
    5. 5.4 Molecular Orbital Theory
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  7. 6 Composition of Substances and Solutions
    1. Introduction
    2. 6.1 Formula Mass
    3. 6.2 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
    4. 6.3 Molarity
    5. 6.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  8. 7 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
    1. Introduction
    2. 7.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
    3. 7.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions
    4. 7.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
    5. 7.4 Reaction Yields
    6. 7.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis
    7. Key Terms
    8. Key Equations
    9. Summary
    10. Exercises
  9. 8 Gases
    1. Introduction
    2. 8.1 Gas Pressure
    3. 8.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
    4. 8.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions
    5. 8.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
    6. 8.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
    7. 8.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  10. 9 Thermochemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 9.1 Energy Basics
    3. 9.2 Calorimetry
    4. 9.3 Enthalpy
    5. 9.4 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  11. 10 Liquids and Solids
    1. Introduction
    2. 10.1 Intermolecular Forces
    3. 10.2 Properties of Liquids
    4. 10.3 Phase Transitions
    5. 10.4 Phase Diagrams
    6. 10.5 The Solid State of Matter
    7. 10.6 Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  12. 11 Solutions and Colloids
    1. Introduction
    2. 11.1 The Dissolution Process
    3. 11.2 Electrolytes
    4. 11.3 Solubility
    5. 11.4 Colligative Properties
    6. 11.5 Colloids
    7. Key Terms
    8. Key Equations
    9. Summary
    10. Exercises
  13. 12 Thermodynamics
    1. Introduction
    2. 12.1 Spontaneity
    3. 12.2 Entropy
    4. 12.3 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
    5. 12.4 Free Energy
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  14. 13 Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
    1. Introduction
    2. 13.1 Chemical Equilibria
    3. 13.2 Equilibrium Constants
    4. 13.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle
    5. 13.4 Equilibrium Calculations
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  15. 14 Acid-Base Equilibria
    1. Introduction
    2. 14.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    3. 14.2 pH and pOH
    4. 14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
    5. 14.4 Hydrolysis of Salt Solutions
    6. 14.5 Polyprotic Acids
    7. 14.6 Buffers
    8. 14.7 Acid-Base Titrations
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  16. 15 Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
    1. Introduction
    2. 15.1 Precipitation and Dissolution
    3. 15.2 Lewis Acids and Bases
    4. 15.3 Multiple Equilibria
    5. Key Terms
    6. Key Equations
    7. Summary
    8. Exercises
  17. 16 Electrochemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 16.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
    3. 16.2 Galvanic Cells
    4. 16.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
    5. 16.4 The Nernst Equation
    6. 16.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells
    7. 16.6 Corrosion
    8. 16.7 Electrolysis
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  18. 17 Kinetics
    1. Introduction
    2. 17.1 Chemical Reaction Rates
    3. 17.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
    4. 17.3 Rate Laws
    5. 17.4 Integrated Rate Laws
    6. 17.5 Collision Theory
    7. 17.6 Reaction Mechanisms
    8. 17.7 Catalysis
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  19. 18 Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
    1. Introduction
    2. 18.1 Periodicity
    3. 18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
    4. 18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
    5. 18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
    6. 18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
    7. 18.6 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
    8. 18.7 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
    9. 18.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
    10. 18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
    11. 18.10 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
    12. 18.11 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
    13. 18.12 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
    14. Key Terms
    15. Summary
    16. Exercises
  20. 19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 19.1 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds
    3. 19.2 Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals
    4. 19.3 Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
    5. Key Terms
    6. Summary
    7. Exercises
  21. 20 Nuclear Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 20.1 Nuclear Structure and Stability
    3. 20.2 Nuclear Equations
    4. 20.3 Radioactive Decay
    5. 20.4 Transmutation and Nuclear Energy
    6. 20.5 Uses of Radioisotopes
    7. 20.6 Biological Effects of Radiation
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  22. 21 Organic Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 21.1 Hydrocarbons
    3. 21.2 Alcohols and Ethers
    4. 21.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
    5. 21.4 Amines and Amides
    6. Key Terms
    7. Summary
    8. Exercises
  23. A | The Periodic Table
  24. B | Essential Mathematics
  25. C | Units and Conversion Factors
  26. D | Fundamental Physical Constants
  27. E | Water Properties
  28. F | Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
  29. G | Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
  30. H | Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
  31. I | Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
  32. J | Solubility Products
  33. K | Formation Constants for Complex Ions
  34. L | Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
  35. M | Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes
  36. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
    7. Chapter 7
    8. Chapter 8
    9. Chapter 9
    10. Chapter 10
    11. Chapter 11
    12. Chapter 12
    13. Chapter 13
    14. Chapter 14
    15. Chapter 15
    16. Chapter 16
    17. Chapter 17
    18. Chapter 18
    19. Chapter 19
    20. Chapter 20
    21. Chapter 21
  37. Index

Exponential Arithmetic

Exponential notation is used to express very large and very small numbers as a product of two numbers. The first number of the product, the digit term, is usually a number not less than 1 and not greater than 10. The second number of the product, the exponential term, is written as 10 with an exponent. Some examples of exponential notation are:

1000=1×103 100=1×102 10=1×101 1=1×100 0.1=1×10−1 0.001=1×10−3 2386=2.386×1000=2.386×103 0.123=1.23×0.1=1.23×10−11000=1×103 100=1×102 10=1×101 1=1×100 0.1=1×10−1 0.001=1×10−3 2386=2.386×1000=2.386×103 0.123=1.23×0.1=1.23×10−1

The power (exponent) of 10 is equal to the number of places the decimal is shifted to give the digit number. The exponential method is particularly useful notation for every large and very small numbers. For example, 1,230,000,000 = 1.23 ×× 109, and 0.00000000036 = 3.6 ×× 10−10.

Addition of Exponentials

Convert all numbers to the same power of 10, add the digit terms of the numbers, and if appropriate, convert the digit term back to a number between 1 and 10 by adjusting the exponential term.

Example B1

Adding Exponentials

Add 5.00 ×× 10−5 and 3.00 ×× 10−3.

Solution

3.00×10−3=300×10−5(5.00×10−5)+(300×10−5)=305×10−5=3.05×10−33.00×10−3=300×10−5(5.00×10−5)+(300×10−5)=305×10−5=3.05×10−3

Subtraction of Exponentials

Convert all numbers to the same power of 10, take the difference of the digit terms, and if appropriate, convert the digit term back to a number between 1 and 10 by adjusting the exponential term.

Example B2

Subtracting Exponentials

Subtract 4.0 ×× 10−7 from 5.0 ×× 10−6.

Solution

4.0×10−7=0.40×10−6(5.0×10−6)(0.40×10−6)=4.6×10−64.0×10−7=0.40×10−6(5.0×10−6)(0.40×10−6)=4.6×10−6

Multiplication of Exponentials

Multiply the digit terms in the usual way and add the exponents of the exponential terms.

Example B3

Multiplying Exponentials

Multiply 4.2 ×× 10−8 by 2.0 ×× 103.

Solution

(4.2×10−8)×(2.0×103)=(4.2×2.0)×10(−8)+(+3)=8.4×10−5(4.2×10−8)×(2.0×103)=(4.2×2.0)×10(−8)+(+3)=8.4×10−5

Division of Exponentials

Divide the digit term of the numerator by the digit term of the denominator and subtract the exponents of the exponential terms.

Example B4

Dividing Exponentials

Divide 3.6 ×× 105 by 6.0 ×× 10−4.

Solution

3.6×10−56.0×10−4=(3.66.0)×10(−5)(−4)=0.60×10−1=6.0×10−23.6×10−56.0×10−4=(3.66.0)×10(−5)(−4)=0.60×10−1=6.0×10−2

Squaring of Exponentials

Square the digit term in the usual way and multiply the exponent of the exponential term by 2.

Example B5

Squaring Exponentials

Square the number 4.0 ×× 10−6.

Solution

(4.0×10−6)2=4×4×102×(−6)=16×10−12=1.6×10−11(4.0×10−6)2=4×4×102×(−6)=16×10−12=1.6×10−11

Cubing of Exponentials

Cube the digit term in the usual way and multiply the exponent of the exponential term by 3.

Example B6

Cubing Exponentials

Cube the number 2 ×× 104.

Solution

(2×104)3=2×2×2×103×4=8×1012(2×104)3=2×2×2×103×4=8×1012

Taking Square Roots of Exponentials

If necessary, decrease or increase the exponential term so that the power of 10 is evenly divisible by 2. Extract the square root of the digit term and divide the exponential term by 2.

Example B7

Finding the Square Root of Exponentials

Find the square root of 1.6 ×× 10−7.

Solution

1.6×10−7=16×10−816×10−8=16×10−8=16×1082=4.0×10−41.6×10−7=16×10−816×10−8=16×10−8=16×1082=4.0×10−4

Significant Figures

A beekeeper reports that he has 525,341 bees. The last three figures of the number are obviously inaccurate, for during the time the keeper was counting the bees, some of them died and others hatched; this makes it quite difficult to determine the exact number of bees. It would have been more accurate if the beekeeper had reported the number 525,000. In other words, the last three figures are not significant, except to set the position of the decimal point. Their exact values have no meaning useful in this situation. In reporting any information as numbers, use only as many significant figures as the accuracy of the measurement warrants.

The importance of significant figures lies in their application to fundamental computation. In addition and subtraction, the sum or difference should contain as many digits to the right of the decimal as that in the least certain of the numbers used in the computation (indicated by underscoring in the following example).

Example B8

Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures

Add 4.383 g and 0.0023 g.

Solution

4.383_g0.0023_g4.385_g4.383_g0.0023_g4.385_g

In multiplication and division, the product or quotient should contain no more digits than that in the factor containing the least number of significant figures.

Example B9

Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures

Multiply 0.6238 by 6.6.

Solution

0.6238_×6.6_=4.1_0.6238_×6.6_=4.1_

When rounding numbers, increase the retained digit by 1 if it is followed by a number larger than 5 (“round up”). Do not change the retained digit if the digits that follow are less than 5 (“round down”). If the retained digit is followed by 5, round up if the retained digit is odd, or round down if it is even (after rounding, the retained digit will thus always be even).

The Use of Logarithms and Exponential Numbers

The common logarithm of a number (log) is the power to which 10 must be raised to equal that number. For example, the common logarithm of 100 is 2, because 10 must be raised to the second power to equal 100. Additional examples follow.

Logarithms and Exponential Numbers
Number Number Expressed Exponentially Common Logarithm
1000 103 3
10 101 1
1 100 0
0.1 10−1 −1
0.001 10−3 −3
Table B1

What is the common logarithm of 60? Because 60 lies between 10 and 100, which have logarithms of 1 and 2, respectively, the logarithm of 60 is 1.7782; that is,

60=101.778260=101.7782

The common logarithm of a number less than 1 has a negative value. The logarithm of 0.03918 is −1.4069, or

0.03918=101.4069=1101.40690.03918=101.4069=1101.4069

To obtain the common logarithm of a number, use the log button on your calculator. To calculate a number from its logarithm, take the inverse log of the logarithm, or calculate 10x (where x is the logarithm of the number).

The natural logarithm of a number (ln) is the power to which e must be raised to equal the number; e is the constant 2.7182818. For example, the natural logarithm of 10 is 2.303; that is,

10=e2.303=2.71828182.30310=e2.303=2.71828182.303

To obtain the natural logarithm of a number, use the ln button on your calculator. To calculate a number from its natural logarithm, enter the natural logarithm and take the inverse ln of the natural logarithm, or calculate ex (where x is the natural logarithm of the number).

Logarithms are exponents; thus, operations involving logarithms follow the same rules as operations involving exponents.

  1. The logarithm of a product of two numbers is the sum of the logarithms of the two numbers.
    logxy=logx+logy,and lnxy=lnx+lnylogxy=logx+logy,and lnxy=lnx+lny
  2. The logarithm of the number resulting from the division of two numbers is the difference between the logarithms of the two numbers.
    logxy=logxlogy,and lnxy=lnxlnylogxy=logxlogy,and lnxy=lnxlny
  3. The logarithm of a number raised to an exponent is the product of the exponent and the logarithm of the number.
    logxn=nlogxand lnxn=nlnxlogxn=nlogxand lnxn=nlnx

The Solution of Quadratic Equations

Mathematical functions of this form are known as second-order polynomials or, more commonly, quadratic functions.

ax2+bx+c=0ax2+bx+c=0

The solution or roots for any quadratic equation can be calculated using the following formula:

x=b±b24ac2ax=b±b24ac2a
Example B10

Solving Quadratic Equations

Solve the quadratic equation 3x2 + 13x − 10 = 0.

Solution

Substituting the values a = 3, b = 13, c = −10 in the formula, we obtain
x=13±(13)24×3×(−10)2×3x=13±(13)24×3×(−10)2×3
x=13±169+1206=13±2896=13±176x=13±169+1206=13±2896=13±176

The two roots are therefore

x=13+176=23andx=13176=−5x=13+176=23andx=13176=−5

Quadratic equations constructed on physical data always have real roots, and of these real roots, often only those having positive values are of any significance.

Two-Dimensional (x-y) Graphing

The relationship between any two properties of a system can be represented graphically by a two-dimensional data plot. Such a graph has two axes: a horizontal one corresponding to the independent variable, or the variable whose value is being controlled (x), and a vertical axis corresponding to the dependent variable, or the variable whose value is being observed or measured (y).

When the value of y is changing as a function of x (that is, different values of x correspond to different values of y), a graph of this change can be plotted or sketched. The graph can be produced by using specific values for (x,y) data pairs.

Example B11

Graphing the Dependence of y on x

x y
1 5
2 10
3 7
4 14

This table contains the following points: (1,5), (2,10), (3,7), and (4,14). Each of these points can be plotted on a graph and connected to produce a graphical representation of the dependence of y on x.

A graph is titled “Dependency of Y on X.” The x-axis ranges from 0 to 4.5. The y-axis ranges from 0 to 16. Four points are plotted as a line graph; the points are 1 and 5, 2 and 10, 3 and 7, and 4 and 14.

If the function that describes the dependence of y on x is known, it may be used to compute x,y data pairs that may subsequently be plotted.

Example B12

Plotting Data Pairs

If we know that y = x2 + 2, we can produce a table of a few (x,y) values and then plot the line based on the data shown here.
x y = x2 + 2
1 3
2 6
3 11
4 18
A graph is titled “Y equals x superscript 2 plus 2.” The x-axis ranges from 0 to 4.5. The y-axis ranges from 0 to 20. Four points are plotted as a line graph; the points are 1 and 3, 2 and 6, 3 and 11, and 4 and 18.
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