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Chemistry: Atoms First

8.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior

Chemistry: Atoms First8.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Essential Ideas
    1. Introduction
    2. 1.1 Chemistry in Context
    3. 1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter
    4. 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
    5. 1.4 Measurements
    6. 1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
    7. 1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  3. 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
    1. Introduction
    2. 2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
    3. 2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
    4. 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
    5. 2.4 Chemical Formulas
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  4. 3 Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements
    1. Introduction
    2. 3.1 Electromagnetic Energy
    3. 3.2 The Bohr Model
    4. 3.3 Development of Quantum Theory
    5. 3.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)
    6. 3.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties
    7. 3.6 The Periodic Table
    8. 3.7 Molecular and Ionic Compounds
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  5. 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
    1. Introduction
    2. 4.1 Ionic Bonding
    3. 4.2 Covalent Bonding
    4. 4.3 Chemical Nomenclature
    5. 4.4 Lewis Symbols and Structures
    6. 4.5 Formal Charges and Resonance
    7. 4.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  6. 5 Advanced Theories of Bonding
    1. Introduction
    2. 5.1 Valence Bond Theory
    3. 5.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
    4. 5.3 Multiple Bonds
    5. 5.4 Molecular Orbital Theory
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  7. 6 Composition of Substances and Solutions
    1. Introduction
    2. 6.1 Formula Mass
    3. 6.2 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
    4. 6.3 Molarity
    5. 6.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  8. 7 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
    1. Introduction
    2. 7.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
    3. 7.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions
    4. 7.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
    5. 7.4 Reaction Yields
    6. 7.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis
    7. Key Terms
    8. Key Equations
    9. Summary
    10. Exercises
  9. 8 Gases
    1. Introduction
    2. 8.1 Gas Pressure
    3. 8.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
    4. 8.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions
    5. 8.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
    6. 8.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
    7. 8.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  10. 9 Thermochemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 9.1 Energy Basics
    3. 9.2 Calorimetry
    4. 9.3 Enthalpy
    5. 9.4 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  11. 10 Liquids and Solids
    1. Introduction
    2. 10.1 Intermolecular Forces
    3. 10.2 Properties of Liquids
    4. 10.3 Phase Transitions
    5. 10.4 Phase Diagrams
    6. 10.5 The Solid State of Matter
    7. 10.6 Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  12. 11 Solutions and Colloids
    1. Introduction
    2. 11.1 The Dissolution Process
    3. 11.2 Electrolytes
    4. 11.3 Solubility
    5. 11.4 Colligative Properties
    6. 11.5 Colloids
    7. Key Terms
    8. Key Equations
    9. Summary
    10. Exercises
  13. 12 Thermodynamics
    1. Introduction
    2. 12.1 Spontaneity
    3. 12.2 Entropy
    4. 12.3 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
    5. 12.4 Free Energy
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  14. 13 Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
    1. Introduction
    2. 13.1 Chemical Equilibria
    3. 13.2 Equilibrium Constants
    4. 13.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle
    5. 13.4 Equilibrium Calculations
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  15. 14 Acid-Base Equilibria
    1. Introduction
    2. 14.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    3. 14.2 pH and pOH
    4. 14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
    5. 14.4 Hydrolysis of Salt Solutions
    6. 14.5 Polyprotic Acids
    7. 14.6 Buffers
    8. 14.7 Acid-Base Titrations
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  16. 15 Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
    1. Introduction
    2. 15.1 Precipitation and Dissolution
    3. 15.2 Lewis Acids and Bases
    4. 15.3 Multiple Equilibria
    5. Key Terms
    6. Key Equations
    7. Summary
    8. Exercises
  17. 16 Electrochemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 16.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
    3. 16.2 Galvanic Cells
    4. 16.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
    5. 16.4 The Nernst Equation
    6. 16.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells
    7. 16.6 Corrosion
    8. 16.7 Electrolysis
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  18. 17 Kinetics
    1. Introduction
    2. 17.1 Chemical Reaction Rates
    3. 17.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
    4. 17.3 Rate Laws
    5. 17.4 Integrated Rate Laws
    6. 17.5 Collision Theory
    7. 17.6 Reaction Mechanisms
    8. 17.7 Catalysis
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  19. 18 Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
    1. Introduction
    2. 18.1 Periodicity
    3. 18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
    4. 18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
    5. 18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
    6. 18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
    7. 18.6 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
    8. 18.7 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
    9. 18.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
    10. 18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
    11. 18.10 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
    12. 18.11 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
    13. 18.12 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
    14. Key Terms
    15. Summary
    16. Exercises
  20. 19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 19.1 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds
    3. 19.2 Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals
    4. 19.3 Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
    5. Key Terms
    6. Summary
    7. Exercises
  21. 20 Nuclear Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 20.1 Nuclear Structure and Stability
    3. 20.2 Nuclear Equations
    4. 20.3 Radioactive Decay
    5. 20.4 Transmutation and Nuclear Energy
    6. 20.5 Uses of Radioisotopes
    7. 20.6 Biological Effects of Radiation
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  22. 21 Organic Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 21.1 Hydrocarbons
    3. 21.2 Alcohols and Ethers
    4. 21.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
    5. 21.4 Amines and Amides
    6. Key Terms
    7. Summary
    8. Exercises
  23. A | The Periodic Table
  24. B | Essential Mathematics
  25. C | Units and Conversion Factors
  26. D | Fundamental Physical Constants
  27. E | Water Properties
  28. F | Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
  29. G | Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
  30. H | Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
  31. I | Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
  32. J | Solubility Products
  33. K | Formation Constants for Complex Ions
  34. L | Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
  35. M | Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes
  36. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
    7. Chapter 7
    8. Chapter 8
    9. Chapter 9
    10. Chapter 10
    11. Chapter 11
    12. Chapter 12
    13. Chapter 13
    14. Chapter 14
    15. Chapter 15
    16. Chapter 16
    17. Chapter 17
    18. Chapter 18
    19. Chapter 19
    20. Chapter 20
    21. Chapter 21
  37. Index

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
  • Describe the physical factors that lead to deviations from ideal gas behavior
  • Explain how these factors are represented in the van der Waals equation
  • Define compressibility (Z) and describe how its variation with pressure reflects non-ideal behavior
  • Quantify non-ideal behavior by comparing computations of gas properties using the ideal gas law and the van der Waals equation

Thus far, the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, has been applied to a variety of different types of problems, ranging from reaction stoichiometry and empirical and molecular formula problems to determining the density and molar mass of a gas. As mentioned in the previous modules of this chapter, however, the behavior of a gas is often non-ideal, meaning that the observed relationships between its pressure, volume, and temperature are not accurately described by the gas laws. In this section, the reasons for these deviations from ideal gas behavior are considered.

One way in which the accuracy of PV = nRT can be judged is by comparing the actual volume of 1 mole of gas (its molar volume, Vm) to the molar volume of an ideal gas at the same temperature and pressure. This ratio is called the compressibility factor (Z) with:

Z=molar volume of gas at sameTandPmolar volume of ideal gas at sameTandP=(PVmRT)measuredZ=molar volume of gas at sameTandPmolar volume of ideal gas at sameTandP=(PVmRT)measured
8.79

Ideal gas behavior is therefore indicated when this ratio is equal to 1, and any deviation from 1 is an indication of non-ideal behavior. Figure 8.35 shows plots of Z over a large pressure range for several common gases.

A graph is shown. The horizontal axis is labeled, “P ( a t m ).” Its scale begins at zero with markings provided by multiples of 200 up to 1000. The vertical axis is labeled, “Z le( k P a ).” This scale begins at zero and includes multiples of 0.5 up to 2.0. Six curves are drawn of varying colors. One of these curves is a horizontal, light purple line extending right from 1.0 k P a on the vertical axis, which is labeled “Ideal gas.” The region of the graph beneath this line is shaded tan. The remaining curves also start at the same point on the vertical axis. An orange line extends to the upper right corner of the graph, reaching a value of approximately 1.7 k P a at 1000 a t m. This orange curve is labeled, “H subscript 2.” A blue curve dips below the horizontal ideal gas line initially, then increases to cross the line just past 200 a t m. This curve reaches a value of nearly 2.0 k P a at about 800 a t m. This curve is labeled, “N subscript 2.” A red curve dips below the horizontal ideal gas line initially, then increases to cross the line just past 400 a t m. This curve reaches a value of nearly 1.5 k P a at about 750 a t m. This curve is labeled, “O subscript 2.” A purple curve dips below the horizontal ideal gas line, dipping even lower than the O subscript 2 curve initially, then increases to cross the ideal gas line at about 400 a t m. This curve reaches a value of nearly 2.0 k P a at about 850 a t m. This curve is labeled, “C H subscript 4.” A yellow curve dips below the horizontal ideal gas line, dipping lower than the other curves to a minimum of about 0.4 k P a at about 0.75 a t m, then increases to cross the ideal gas line at about 500 a t m. This curve reaches a value of about 1.6 k P a at about 900 a t m. This curve is labeled, “C O subscript 2.”
Figure 8.35 A graph of the compressibility factor (Z) vs. pressure shows that gases can exhibit significant deviations from the behavior predicted by the ideal gas law.

As is apparent from Figure 8.35, the ideal gas law does not describe gas behavior well at relatively high pressures. To determine why this is, consider the differences between real gas properties and what is expected of a hypothetical ideal gas.

Particles of a hypothetical ideal gas have no significant volume and do not attract or repel each other. In general, real gases approximate this behavior at relatively low pressures and high temperatures. However, at high pressures, the molecules of a gas are crowded closer together, and the amount of empty space between the molecules is reduced. At these higher pressures, the volume of the gas molecules themselves becomes appreciable relative to the total volume occupied by the gas (Figure 8.36). The gas therefore becomes less compressible at these high pressures, and although its volume continues to decrease with increasing pressure, this decrease is not proportional as predicted by Boyle’s law.

This figure includes three diagrams. In a, a cylinder with 9 purple spheres with trails indicating motion are shown. Above the cylinder, the label, “Particles ideal gas,” is connected to two of the spheres with line segments extending into the square. The label “Assumes” is beneath the square. In b, a cylinder and piston is shown. A relatively small open space is shaded lavender with 9 purple spheres packed close together. No motion trails are present on the spheres. Above the piston, a downward arrow labeled “Pressure” is directed toward the enclosed area. In c, the cylinder is exactly the same as the first, but the number of molecules has doubled.
Figure 8.36 Raising the pressure of a gas increases the fraction of its volume that is occupied by the gas molecules and makes the gas less compressible.

At relatively low pressures, gas molecules have practically no attraction for one another because they are (on average) so far apart, and they behave almost like particles of an ideal gas. At higher pressures, however, the force of attraction is also no longer insignificant. This force pulls the molecules a little closer together, slightly decreasing the pressure (if the volume is constant) or decreasing the volume (at constant pressure) (Figure 8.37). This change is more pronounced at low temperatures because the molecules have lower KE relative to the attractive forces, and so they are less effective in overcoming these attractions after colliding with one another.

This figure includes two diagrams. Each involves two lavender shaded boxes that contain 14 relatively evenly distributed, purple spheres. In the first box in a, a nearly centrally located purple sphere has 6 double-headed arrows extending outward from it to nearby spheres. A single purple arrow is pointing right into open space. This box is labeled, “real.” There is a second box that looks slightly larger than the first box in a. It has the same number of particles but no arrows. This box is labeled, “ideal.” In b, the first box has a purple sphere at the right side which has 4 double-headed arrows radiating out to the top, bottom, and left to other spheres. A single purple arrow points right through open space to the edge of the box. This box has no spheres positioned near its right edge This box is labeled, “real.” The second box is the same size as the first box and contains the same number of particles. There are no arrows in it, except for the purple arrow which appears to be bigger and bolder. This box is labeled, “ideal.”
Figure 8.37 (a) Attractions between gas molecules serve to decrease the gas volume at constant pressure compared to an ideal gas whose molecules experience no attractive forces. (b) These attractive forces will decrease the force of collisions between the molecules and container walls, therefore reducing the pressure exerted compared to an ideal gas.

There are several different equations that better approximate gas behavior than does the ideal gas law. The first, and simplest, of these was developed by the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals in 1879. The van der Waals equation improves upon the ideal gas law by adding two terms: one to account for the volume of the gas molecules and another for the attractive forces between them.

This figure shows the equation P V equals n R T, with the P in blue text and the V in red text. This equation is followed by a right pointing arrow. Following this arrow, to the right in blue text appears the equation ( P minus a n superscript 2 divided by V squared ),” which is followed by the red text ( V minus n b ). This is followed in black text with equals n R T. Beneath the second equation appears the label, “Correction for molecular attraction” which is connected with a line segment to V squared. A second label, “Correction for volume of molecules,” is similarly connected to n b which appears in red.

The constant a corresponds to the strength of the attraction between molecules of a particular gas, and the constant b corresponds to the size of the molecules of a particular gas. The “correction” to the pressure term in the ideal gas law is n2aV2,n2aV2, and the “correction” to the volume is nb. Note that when V is relatively large and n is relatively small, both of these correction terms become negligible, and the van der Waals equation reduces to the ideal gas law, PV = nRT. Such a condition corresponds to a gas in which a relatively low number of molecules is occupying a relatively large volume, that is, a gas at a relatively low pressure. Experimental values for the van der Waals constants of some common gases are given in Table 8.3.

Values of van der Waals Constants for Some Common Gases
Gas a (L2 atm/mol2) b (L/mol)
N2 1.39 0.0391
O2 1.36 0.0318
CO2 3.59 0.0427
H2O 5.46 0.0305
He 0.0342 0.0237
CCl4 20.4 0.1383
Table 8.3

At low pressures, the correction for intermolecular attraction, a, is more important than the one for molecular volume, b. At high pressures and small volumes, the correction for the volume of the molecules becomes important because the molecules themselves are incompressible and constitute an appreciable fraction of the total volume. At some intermediate pressure, the two corrections have opposing influences and the gas appears to follow the relationship given by PV = nRT over a small range of pressures. This behavior is reflected by the “dips” in several of the compressibility curves shown in Figure 8.35. The attractive force between molecules initially makes the gas more compressible than an ideal gas, as pressure is raised (Z decreases with increasing P). At very high pressures, the gas becomes less compressible (Z increases with P), as the gas molecules begin to occupy an increasingly significant fraction of the total gas volume.

Strictly speaking, the ideal gas equation functions well when intermolecular attractions between gas molecules are negligible and the gas molecules themselves do not occupy an appreciable part of the whole volume. These criteria are satisfied under conditions of low pressure and high temperature. Under such conditions, the gas is said to behave ideally, and deviations from the gas laws are small enough that they may be disregarded—this is, however, very often not the case.

Example 8.24

Comparison of Ideal Gas Law and van der Waals Equation

A 4.25-L flask contains 3.46 mol CO2 at 229 °C. Calculate the pressure of this sample of CO2:

(a) from the ideal gas law

(b) from the van der Waals equation

(c) Explain the reason(s) for the difference.

Solution

(a) From the ideal gas law:
P=nRTV=3.46mol×0.08206Latmmol−1K−1×502K4.25L=33.5atmP=nRTV=3.46mol×0.08206Latmmol−1K−1×502K4.25L=33.5atm
8.80

(b) From the van der Waals equation:

(P+n2aV2)×(Vnb)=nRTP=nRT(Vnb)n2aV2(P+n2aV2)×(Vnb)=nRTP=nRT(Vnb)n2aV2
8.81
P=3.46mol×0.08206Latmmol−1K−1×502 K(4.25L3.46mol×0.0427Lmol−1)(3.46mol)2×3.59L2atmmol2(4.25L)2P=3.46mol×0.08206Latmmol−1K−1×502 K(4.25L3.46mol×0.0427Lmol−1)(3.46mol)2×3.59L2atmmol2(4.25L)2
8.82

This finally yields P = 32.4 atm.

(c) This is not very different from the value from the ideal gas law because the pressure is not very high and the temperature is not very low. The value is somewhat different because CO2 molecules do have some volume and attractions between molecules, and the ideal gas law assumes they do not have volume or attractions.

Check your Learning

A 560-mL flask contains 21.3 g N2 at 145 °C. Calculate the pressure of N2:

(a) from the ideal gas law

(b) from the van der Waals equation

(c) Explain the reason(s) for the difference.

Answer:

(a) 46.562 atm; (b) 46.594 atm; (c) The van der Waals equation takes into account the volume of the gas molecules themselves as well as intermolecular attractions.

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