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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Essential Ideas
    1. Introduction
    2. 1.1 Chemistry in Context
    3. 1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter
    4. 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
    5. 1.4 Measurements
    6. 1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
    7. 1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  3. 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
    1. Introduction
    2. 2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
    3. 2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
    4. 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
    5. 2.4 Chemical Formulas
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  4. 3 Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements
    1. Introduction
    2. 3.1 Electromagnetic Energy
    3. 3.2 The Bohr Model
    4. 3.3 Development of Quantum Theory
    5. 3.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)
    6. 3.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties
    7. 3.6 The Periodic Table
    8. 3.7 Ionic and Molecular Compounds
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  5. 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
    1. Introduction
    2. 4.1 Ionic Bonding
    3. 4.2 Covalent Bonding
    4. 4.3 Chemical Nomenclature
    5. 4.4 Lewis Symbols and Structures
    6. 4.5 Formal Charges and Resonance
    7. 4.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  6. 5 Advanced Theories of Bonding
    1. Introduction
    2. 5.1 Valence Bond Theory
    3. 5.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
    4. 5.3 Multiple Bonds
    5. 5.4 Molecular Orbital Theory
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  7. 6 Composition of Substances and Solutions
    1. Introduction
    2. 6.1 Formula Mass
    3. 6.2 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
    4. 6.3 Molarity
    5. 6.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  8. 7 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
    1. Introduction
    2. 7.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
    3. 7.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions
    4. 7.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
    5. 7.4 Reaction Yields
    6. 7.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis
    7. Key Terms
    8. Key Equations
    9. Summary
    10. Exercises
  9. 8 Gases
    1. Introduction
    2. 8.1 Gas Pressure
    3. 8.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
    4. 8.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions
    5. 8.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
    6. 8.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
    7. 8.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  10. 9 Thermochemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 9.1 Energy Basics
    3. 9.2 Calorimetry
    4. 9.3 Enthalpy
    5. 9.4 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  11. 10 Liquids and Solids
    1. Introduction
    2. 10.1 Intermolecular Forces
    3. 10.2 Properties of Liquids
    4. 10.3 Phase Transitions
    5. 10.4 Phase Diagrams
    6. 10.5 The Solid State of Matter
    7. 10.6 Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  12. 11 Solutions and Colloids
    1. Introduction
    2. 11.1 The Dissolution Process
    3. 11.2 Electrolytes
    4. 11.3 Solubility
    5. 11.4 Colligative Properties
    6. 11.5 Colloids
    7. Key Terms
    8. Key Equations
    9. Summary
    10. Exercises
  13. 12 Thermodynamics
    1. Introduction
    2. 12.1 Spontaneity
    3. 12.2 Entropy
    4. 12.3 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
    5. 12.4 Free Energy
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  14. 13 Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
    1. Introduction
    2. 13.1 Chemical Equilibria
    3. 13.2 Equilibrium Constants
    4. 13.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle
    5. 13.4 Equilibrium Calculations
    6. Key Terms
    7. Key Equations
    8. Summary
    9. Exercises
  15. 14 Acid-Base Equilibria
    1. Introduction
    2. 14.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    3. 14.2 pH and pOH
    4. 14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
    5. 14.4 Hydrolysis of Salts
    6. 14.5 Polyprotic Acids
    7. 14.6 Buffers
    8. 14.7 Acid-Base Titrations
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  16. 15 Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
    1. Introduction
    2. 15.1 Precipitation and Dissolution
    3. 15.2 Lewis Acids and Bases
    4. 15.3 Coupled Equilibria
    5. Key Terms
    6. Key Equations
    7. Summary
    8. Exercises
  17. 16 Electrochemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 16.1 Review of Redox Chemistry
    3. 16.2 Galvanic Cells
    4. 16.3 Electrode and Cell Potentials
    5. 16.4 Potential, Free Energy, and Equilibrium
    6. 16.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells
    7. 16.6 Corrosion
    8. 16.7 Electrolysis
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  18. 17 Kinetics
    1. Introduction
    2. 17.1 Chemical Reaction Rates
    3. 17.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
    4. 17.3 Rate Laws
    5. 17.4 Integrated Rate Laws
    6. 17.5 Collision Theory
    7. 17.6 Reaction Mechanisms
    8. 17.7 Catalysis
    9. Key Terms
    10. Key Equations
    11. Summary
    12. Exercises
  19. 18 Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
    1. Introduction
    2. 18.1 Periodicity
    3. 18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
    4. 18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
    5. 18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
    6. 18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
    7. 18.6 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
    8. 18.7 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
    9. 18.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
    10. 18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
    11. 18.10 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
    12. 18.11 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
    13. 18.12 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
    14. Key Terms
    15. Summary
    16. Exercises
  20. 19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 19.1 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds
    3. 19.2 Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals
    4. 19.3 Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
    5. Key Terms
    6. Summary
    7. Exercises
  21. 20 Nuclear Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 20.1 Nuclear Structure and Stability
    3. 20.2 Nuclear Equations
    4. 20.3 Radioactive Decay
    5. 20.4 Transmutation and Nuclear Energy
    6. 20.5 Uses of Radioisotopes
    7. 20.6 Biological Effects of Radiation
    8. Key Terms
    9. Key Equations
    10. Summary
    11. Exercises
  22. 21 Organic Chemistry
    1. Introduction
    2. 21.1 Hydrocarbons
    3. 21.2 Alcohols and Ethers
    4. 21.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
    5. 21.4 Amines and Amides
    6. Key Terms
    7. Summary
    8. Exercises
  23. A | The Periodic Table
  24. B | Essential Mathematics
  25. C | Units and Conversion Factors
  26. D | Fundamental Physical Constants
  27. E | Water Properties
  28. F | Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
  29. G | Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
  30. H | Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
  31. I | Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
  32. J | Solubility Products
  33. K | Formation Constants for Complex Ions
  34. L | Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
  35. M | Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes
  36. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
    7. Chapter 7
    8. Chapter 8
    9. Chapter 9
    10. Chapter 10
    11. Chapter 11
    12. Chapter 12
    13. Chapter 13
    14. Chapter 14
    15. Chapter 15
    16. Chapter 16
    17. Chapter 17
    18. Chapter 18
    19. Chapter 19
    20. Chapter 20
    21. Chapter 21
  37. Index
1.

The instantaneous rate is the rate of a reaction at any particular point in time, a period of time that is so short that the concentrations of reactants and products change by a negligible amount. The initial rate is the instantaneous rate of reaction as it starts (as product just begins to form). Average rate is the average of the instantaneous rates over a time period.

3.

rate = + 1 2 Δ [ CIF 3 ] Δ t = Δ [ Cl 2 ] Δ t = 1 3 Δ [ F 2 ] Δ t rate = + 1 2 Δ [ CIF 3 ] Δ t = Δ [ Cl 2 ] Δ t = 1 3 Δ [ F 2 ] Δ t

5.

(a) average rate, 0 − 10 s = 0.0375 mol L−1 s−1; average rate, 10 − 20 s = 0.0265 mol L−1 s−1; (b) instantaneous rate, 15 s = 0.023 mol L−1 s−1; (c) average rate for B formation = 0.0188 mol L−1 s−1; instantaneous rate for B formation = 0.012 mol L−1 s−1

7.

Higher molarity increases the rate of the reaction. Higher temperature increases the rate of the reaction. Smaller pieces of magnesium metal will react more rapidly than larger pieces because more reactive surface exists.

9.

(a) Depending on the angle selected, the atom may take a long time to collide with the molecule and, when a collision does occur, it may not result in the breaking of the bond and the forming of the other. (b) Particles of reactant must come into contact with each other before they can react.

11.

(a) very slow; (b) As the temperature is increased, the reaction proceeds at a faster rate. The amount of reactants decreases, and the amount of products increases. After a while, there is a roughly equal amount of BC, AB, and C in the mixture and a slight excess of A.

13.

(a) 2; (b) 1

15.

(a) The process reduces the rate by a factor of 4. (b) Since CO does not appear in the rate law, the rate is not affected.

17.

4.3 ×× 10−5 mol/L/s

19.

7.9 ×× 10−13 mol/L/year

21.

rate = k; k = 2.0 ×× 10−2 mol L−1 h−1 (about 0.9 g L−1 h−1 for the average male); The reaction is zero order.

23.

rate = k[NOCl]2; k = 8.0 ×× 10−8 L/mol/h; second order

25.

rate = k[NO]2[Cl2]; k = 9.1 L2 mol−2 h−1; second order in NO; first order in Cl2

27.

(a) The rate law is second order in A and is written as rate = k[A]2. (b) k = 7.88 ×× 10−3 L mol−1 s−1

29.

(a) 2.5 ×× 10−4 mol/L/min

31.

rate = k[I][OCl]; k = 6.1 ×× 10−2 L mol −1 s−1

33.

Plotting a graph of ln[SO2Cl2] versus t reveals a linear trend; therefore we know this is a first-order reaction:

A graph is shown with the label “Time ( s )” on the x-axis and “l n [ S O subscript 2 C l subscript 2 ] M” on the y-axis. The x-axis begins at 0 and extends to 4.00 times 10 superscript 4 with markings every 1.00 times 10 superscript 4. The y-axis shows markings extending from negative 3.5 to negative 2.5. A decreasing linear trend line is drawn through seven points at the approximate coordinates: (0, negative 2.3), (0.5 times 10 superscript 4, negative 2.4), (1.0 times 10 superscript 4, negative 2.5), (1.5 times 10 superscript 4, negative 2.6), (2.0 times 10 superscript 4, negative 2.9), (2.5 times 10 superscript 4, negative 3.0), and (3.0 times 10 superscript 4, negative 3.2).


k = 2.20 ×× 10–5 s−1

34.
A graph is shown with the label, “t ( h ,)” on the x-axis and, “1 divided by [ O subscript 3 ] M,” on the y-axis. The x-axis shows markings at 0, 2 times 10 superscript 3, 6 times 10 superscript 3, 10 time 10 superscript 3, 14 times 10 superscript 3, and 18 times 10 superscript 3. The y-axis shows markings beginning at 0, increasing by 1 up to and including 9. An increasing linear trend line is drawn through seven points at the coordinates: (0, 1.00), (2.0 times 10 superscript 3, 2.01), (7.6 times 10 superscript 3, 4.83), (1.00 times 10 superscript 4, 6.02), (1.23 times 10 superscript 4 , 6.02), (1.43 times 10 superscript 4, 8.20) and (1.70 times 10 superscript 4, 9.52). A horizontal line segment is drawn through the first point and a vertical line segment is similarly drawn through the last point to make a right triangle on the graph. The horizontal leg of the triangle is labeled “ capital delta t.” The vertical leg is labeled “capital delta 1 divided by [ O subscript 3 ].”


The plot is nicely linear, so the reaction is second order. k = 50.1 L mol−1 h−1

36.

14.3 d

38.

8.3 ×× 107 s

40.

0.826 s

42.

The reaction is first order. k = 1.0 ×× 107 L mol−1 min−1

44.

1.16 × 103 s ; 20% remains

46.

252 days

48.
[A]0 (M) k ×× 103 (s−1)
4.88 2.45
3.52 2.51
2.29 2.53
1.81 2.58
5.33 2.36
4.05 2.47
2.95 2.48
1.72 2.43
50.

The reactants either may be moving too slowly to have enough kinetic energy to exceed the activation energy for the reaction, or the orientation of the molecules when they collide may prevent the reaction from occurring.

52.

The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy necessary to form the activated complex in a reaction. It is usually expressed as the energy necessary to form one mole of activated complex.

54.

After finding k at several different temperatures, a plot of ln k versus 1T,1T, gives a straight line with the slope EaREaR from which Ea may be determined.

56.

(a) 4-times faster (b) 128-times faster

58.

3.9 × 10 15 s −1 3.9 × 10 15 s −1

60.

43.0 kJ/mol

62.

177 kJ/mol

64.

Ea = 108 kJ; A = 2.0 ×× 108 s−1; k = 3.2 ×× 10−10 s−1; (b) 1.81 ×× 108 h or 7.6 ×× 106 day; (c) Assuming that the reaction is irreversible simplifies the calculation because we do not have to account for any reactant that, having been converted to product, returns to the original state.

66.

The A atom has enough energy to react with BC; however, the different angles at which it bounces off of BC without reacting indicate that the orientation of the molecule is an important part of the reaction kinetics and determines whether a reaction will occur.

68.

No. In general, for the overall reaction, we cannot predict the effect of changing the concentration without knowing the rate law. Yes. If the reaction is an elementary reaction, then doubling the concentration of A doubles the rate.

70.

Rate = k[A][B]2; Rate = k[A]3

72.

(a) Rate1 = k[O3]; (b) Rate2 = k[O3][Cl]; (c) Rate3 = k[ClO][O]; (d) Rate2 = k[O3][NO]; (e) Rate3 = k[NO2][O]

74.

(a) Doubling [H2] doubles the rate. [H2] must enter the rate law to the first power. Doubling [NO] increases the rate by a factor of 4. [NO] must enter the rate law to the second power. (b) Rate = k [NO]2[H2]; (c) k = 5.0 ×× 103 mol−2 L−2 min−1; (d) 0.0050 mol/L; (e) Step II is the rate-determining step. If step I gives N2O2 in adequate amount, steps 1 and 2 combine to give 2NO+H2H2O+N2O.2NO+H2H2O+N2O. This reaction corresponds to the observed rate law. Combine steps 1 and 2 with step 3, which occurs by supposition in a rapid fashion, to give the appropriate stoichiometry.

76.

The general mode of action for a catalyst is to provide a mechanism by which the reactants can unite more readily by taking a path with a lower reaction energy. The rates of both the forward and the reverse reactions are increased, leading to a faster achievement of equilibrium.

78.

(a) Chlorine atoms are a catalyst because they react in the second step but are regenerated in the third step. Thus, they are not used up, which is a characteristic of catalysts. (b) NO is a catalyst for the same reason as in part (a).

79.

no changes.

82.

The lowering of the transition state energy indicates the effect of a catalyst. (a) B; (b) B

84.

The energy needed to go from the initial state to the transition state is (a) 10 kJ; (b) 10 kJ

86.

Both diagrams describe two-step, exothermic reactions, but with different changes in enthalpy, suggesting the diagrams depict two different overall reactions.

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