3.1 Integration by Parts

The integration-by-parts formula allows the exchange of one integral for another, possibly easier, integral.
Integration by parts applies to both definite and indefinite integrals.

3.2 Trigonometric Integrals

Integrals of trigonometric functions can be evaluated by the use of various strategies. These strategies include
1. Applying trigonometric identities to rewrite the integral so that it may be evaluated by u-substitution
2. Using integration by parts
3. Applying trigonometric identities to rewrite products of sines and cosines with different arguments as the sum of individual sine and cosine functions
4. Applying reduction formulas

For integrals involving $\sqrt{a^{2} - x^{2}},$ use the substitution $x = a sin θ$ and $d x = a cos θ d θ .$
For integrals involving $\sqrt{a^{2} + x^{2}},$ use the substitution $x = a tan θ$ and $d x = a {sec}^{2} θ d θ .$
For integrals involving $\sqrt{x^{2} - a^{2}},$ substitute $x = a sec θ$ and $d x = a sec θ tan θ d θ .$

Partial fraction decomposition is a technique used to break down a rational function into a sum of simple rational functions that can be integrated using previously learned techniques.
When applying partial fraction decomposition, we must make sure that the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. If not, we need to perform long division before attempting partial fraction decomposition.
The form the decomposition takes depends on the type of factors in the denominator. The types of factors include nonrepeated linear factors, repeated linear factors, nonrepeated irreducible quadratic factors, and repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

An integration table may be used to evaluate indefinite integrals.
A CAS (or computer algebra system) may be used to evaluate indefinite integrals.
It may require some effort to reconcile equivalent solutions obtained using different methods.

We can use numerical integration to estimate the values of definite integrals when a closed form of the integral is difficult to find or when an approximate value only of the definite integral is needed.
The most commonly used techniques for numerical integration are the midpoint rule, trapezoidal rule, and Simpson’s rule.
The midpoint rule approximates the definite integral using rectangular regions whereas the trapezoidal rule approximates the definite integral using trapezoidal approximations.
Simpson’s rule approximates the definite integral by first approximating the original function using piecewise quadratic functions.

Integrals of functions over infinite intervals are defined in terms of limits.
Integrals of functions over an interval for which the function has a discontinuity at an endpoint may be defined in terms of limits.
The convergence or divergence of an improper integral may be determined by comparing it with the value of an improper integral for which the convergence or divergence is known.