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Calculus Volume 1

Key Concepts

Calculus Volume 1Key Concepts

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. 1 Functions and Graphs
    1. Introduction
    2. 1.1 Review of Functions
    3. 1.2 Basic Classes of Functions
    4. 1.3 Trigonometric Functions
    5. 1.4 Inverse Functions
    6. 1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
    7. Chapter Review
      1. Key Terms
      2. Key Equations
      3. Key Concepts
      4. Review Exercises
  3. 2 Limits
    1. Introduction
    2. 2.1 A Preview of Calculus
    3. 2.2 The Limit of a Function
    4. 2.3 The Limit Laws
    5. 2.4 Continuity
    6. 2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit
    7. Chapter Review
      1. Key Terms
      2. Key Equations
      3. Key Concepts
      4. Review Exercises
  4. 3 Derivatives
    1. Introduction
    2. 3.1 Defining the Derivative
    3. 3.2 The Derivative as a Function
    4. 3.3 Differentiation Rules
    5. 3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change
    6. 3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
    7. 3.6 The Chain Rule
    8. 3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
    9. 3.8 Implicit Differentiation
    10. 3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
    11. Chapter Review
      1. Key Terms
      2. Key Equations
      3. Key Concepts
      4. Review Exercises
  5. 4 Applications of Derivatives
    1. Introduction
    2. 4.1 Related Rates
    3. 4.2 Linear Approximations and Differentials
    4. 4.3 Maxima and Minima
    5. 4.4 The Mean Value Theorem
    6. 4.5 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph
    7. 4.6 Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes
    8. 4.7 Applied Optimization Problems
    9. 4.8 L’Hôpital’s Rule
    10. 4.9 Newton’s Method
    11. 4.10 Antiderivatives
    12. Chapter Review
      1. Key Terms
      2. Key Equations
      3. Key Concepts
      4. Review Exercises
  6. 5 Integration
    1. Introduction
    2. 5.1 Approximating Areas
    3. 5.2 The Definite Integral
    4. 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
    5. 5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
    6. 5.5 Substitution
    7. 5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
    8. 5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions
    9. Chapter Review
      1. Key Terms
      2. Key Equations
      3. Key Concepts
      4. Review Exercises
  7. 6 Applications of Integration
    1. Introduction
    2. 6.1 Areas between Curves
    3. 6.2 Determining Volumes by Slicing
    4. 6.3 Volumes of Revolution: Cylindrical Shells
    5. 6.4 Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
    6. 6.5 Physical Applications
    7. 6.6 Moments and Centers of Mass
    8. 6.7 Integrals, Exponential Functions, and Logarithms
    9. 6.8 Exponential Growth and Decay
    10. 6.9 Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions
    11. Chapter Review
      1. Key Terms
      2. Key Equations
      3. Key Concepts
      4. Review Exercises
  8. A | Table of Integrals
  9. B | Table of Derivatives
  10. C | Review of Pre-Calculus
  11. Answer Key
    1. Chapter 1
    2. Chapter 2
    3. Chapter 3
    4. Chapter 4
    5. Chapter 5
    6. Chapter 6
  12. Index

Key Concepts

5.1 Approximating Areas

  • The use of sigma (summation) notation of the form i=1naii=1nai is useful for expressing long sums of values in compact form.
  • For a continuous function defined over an interval [a,b],[a,b], the process of dividing the interval into n equal parts, extending a rectangle to the graph of the function, calculating the areas of the series of rectangles, and then summing the areas yields an approximation of the area of that region.
  • The width of each rectangle is Δx=ban.Δx=ban.
  • Riemann sums are expressions of the form i=1nf(xi*)Δx,i=1nf(xi*)Δx, and can be used to estimate the area under the curve y=f(x).y=f(x). Left- and right-endpoint approximations are special kinds of Riemann sums where the values of {xi*}{xi*} are chosen to be the left or right endpoints of the subintervals, respectively.
  • Riemann sums allow for much flexibility in choosing the set of points {xi*}{xi*} at which the function is evaluated, often with an eye to obtaining a lower sum or an upper sum.

5.2 The Definite Integral

  • The definite integral can be used to calculate net signed area, which is the area above the x-axis less the area below the x-axis. Net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero.
  • The component parts of the definite integral are the integrand, the variable of integration, and the limits of integration.
  • Continuous functions on a closed interval are integrable. Functions that are not continuous may still be integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities.
  • The properties of definite integrals can be used to evaluate integrals.
  • The area under the curve of many functions can be calculated using geometric formulas.
  • The average value of a function can be calculated using definite integrals.

5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

  • The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that for a continuous function over a closed interval, there is a value c such that f(c)f(c) equals the average value of the function. See The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
  • The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 shows the relationship between the derivative and the integral. See Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
  • The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 is a formula for evaluating a definite integral in terms of an antiderivative of its integrand. The total area under a curve can be found using this formula. See The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.

5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

  • The net change theorem states that when a quantity changes, the final value equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change. Net change can be a positive number, a negative number, or zero.
  • The area under an even function over a symmetric interval can be calculated by doubling the area over the positive x-axis. For an odd function, the integral over a symmetric interval equals zero, because half the area is negative.

5.5 Substitution

  • Substitution is a technique that simplifies the integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative. The term ‘substitution’ refers to changing variables or substituting the variable u and du for appropriate expressions in the integrand.
  • When using substitution for a definite integral, we also have to change the limits of integration.

5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

  • Exponential and logarithmic functions arise in many real-world applications, especially those involving growth and decay.
  • Substitution is often used to evaluate integrals involving exponential functions or logarithms.

5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

  • Formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions developed in Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions lead directly to integration formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions.
  • Use the formulas listed in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions to match up the correct format and make alterations as necessary to solve the problem.
  • Substitution is often required to put the integrand in the correct form.
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