Learning Objectives
In this section, you will explore the following questions:
- What are the roles of male and female reproductive hormones?
- What is the link between the ovarian and menstrual cycles?
- What events are associated with menopause?
Connection for AP® Courses
The information in this section is an application of concepts we learned when exploring the endocrine system in a previous chapter. The human male and female reproductive cycles are regulated by the interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. Detailed knowledge about sperm production and the ovarian and menstrual cycles is not within the scope for AP®, and you likely studied this information in a health class. Since the material in this section is practical and relevant, a brief review is helpful.
Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section support concepts outlined in Big Idea 2 and Big Idea 3 of the AP® Biology Curriculum Framework. The AP® Learning Objectives listed in the Curriculum Framework provide a transparent foundation for the AP® Biology course, an inquiry-based laboratory experience, instructional activities, and AP® exam questions. A learning objective merges required content with one or more of the seven science practices.
| Big Idea 2 | Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis. |
| Enduring Understanding 2.C | Organisms use feedback mechanisms to regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis. |
| Essential Knowledge | 2.C.1 Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes. |
| Science Practice | 7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or across enduring understandings and/or big ideas. |
| Learning Objective | 2.16 The student is able to connect how organisms use negative feedback to maintain their internal environments. |
| Essential Knowledge | 2.C.1 Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes. |
| Science Practice | 5.3 The student can evaluate the evidence provided by data sets in relation to a particular scientific question. |
| Learning Objective | 2.17 The student is able to evaluate data that show the effect(s) of changes in concentration of key molecules on negative feedback mechanisms. |
| Big Idea 3 | Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes. |
| Enduring Understanding 3.D | Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals. |
| Essential Knowledge | 3.D.2 Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. |
| Science Practice | 6.2 The student can construct explanations of phenomena based on evidence produced through scientific practices. |
| Learning Objective | 3.34 The student is able to construct explanations of cell communication through cell-to-cell direct contact or through chemical signaling. |
| Essential Knowledge | 3.D.2 Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. |
| Science Practice | 1.1 The student can create representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. |
| Learning Objective | 3.35 The student is able to create representation(s) that depict how cell-to-cell communication occurs by direct contact or from a distance through chemical signaling. |
Male Hormones
At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) into the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and stimulates the Sertoli cells to begin facilitating spermatogenesis using negative feedback, as illustrated in Figure 34.16. LH also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig to make and release testosterone into the testes and the blood.
Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics that develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates spermatogenesis. These secondary sex characteristics include a deepening of the voice, the growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and the beginnings of the sex drive.
A negative feedback system occurs in the male with rising levels of testosterone acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) , FSH, and LH. The Sertoli cells produce the hormone inhibin, which is released into the blood when the sperm count is too high. This inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH, which will cause spermatogenesis to slow down. If the sperm count reaches 20 million/ml, the Sertoli cells cease the release of inhibin, and the sperm count increases.
Female Hormones
The control of reproduction in females is more complex. As with the male, the anterior pituitary hormones cause the release of the hormones FSH and LH. In addition, estrogens and progesterone are released from the developing follicles. Estrogen is the reproductive hormone in females that assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption; it is also responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of females. These include breast development, flaring of the hips, and a shorter period necessary for bone maturation. Progesterone assists in endometrial re-growth and inhibition of FSH and LH release.
In females, FSH stimulates development of egg cells, called ova, which develop in structures called follicles. Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which inhibits FSH production. LH also plays a role in the development of ova, induction of ovulation, and stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries. Estradiol and progesterone are steroid hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. Estradiol produces secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle.
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs, while the menstrual cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the uterine lining. These cycles occur concurrently and are coordinated over a 22–32 day cycle, with an average length of 28 days.
The first half of the ovarian cycle is the follicular phase shown in Figure 34.17. Slowly rising levels of FSH and LH cause the growth of follicles on the surface of the ovary. This process prepares the egg for ovulation. As the follicles grow, they begin releasing estrogens and a low level of progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium to help ensure pregnancy. The trip through the fallopian tube takes about seven days. At this stage of development, called the morula, there are 30-60 cells. If pregnancy implantation does not occur, the lining is sloughed off. After about five days, estrogen levels rise and the menstrual cycle enters the proliferative phase. The endometrium begins to regrow, replacing the blood vessels and glands that deteriorated during the end of the last cycle.
Visual Connection
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LH and FSH are produced in the ovaries, and estradiol and progesterone are produced in the pituitary.
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Estradiol and progesterone secreted from the corpus luteum cause the myometrium to thicken.
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Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum.
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Secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus is inhibited by high levels of estradiol, but stimulated by low levels of estradiol.
Just prior to the middle of the cycle (approximately day 14), the high level of estrogen causes FSH and especially LH to rise rapidly, then fall. The spike in LH causes ovulation: the most mature follicle, like that shown in Figure 34.18, ruptures and releases its egg. The follicles that did not rupture degenerate and their eggs are lost. The level of estrogen decreases when the extra follicles degenerate.
Following ovulation, the ovarian cycle enters its luteal phase, illustrated in Figure 34.17 and the menstrual cycle enters its secretory phase, both of which run from about day 15 to 28. The luteal and secretory phases refer to changes in the ruptured follicle. The cells in the follicle undergo physical changes and produce a structure called a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone. The progesterone facilitates the regrowth of the uterine lining and inhibits the release of further FSH and LH. The uterus is being prepared to accept a fertilized egg, should it occur during this cycle. The inhibition of FSH and LH prevents any further eggs and follicles from developing, while the progesterone is elevated. The level of estrogen produced by the corpus luteum increases to a steady level for the next few days.
If no fertilized egg is implanted into the uterus, the corpus luteum degenerates and the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease. The endometrium begins to degenerate as the progesterone levels drop, initiating the next menstrual cycle. The decrease in progesterone also allows the hypothalamus to send GnRH to the anterior pituitary, releasing FSH and LH and starting the cycles again. Figure 34.19 visually compares the ovarian and uterine cycles as well as the commensurate hormone levels.
Visual Connection
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Estrogen levels rise during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle and the secretory phase of the uterine cycle.
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Menstruation occurs much before LH and FSH levels peak.
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Menstruation occurs after progesterone levels rise.
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Progesterone levels rise before ovulation, while estrogen levels rise after.
Science Practice Connection for AP® Courses
Think About It
What are the major events in the ovarian cycle leading up to ovulation, and how are these events regulated by negative feedback mechanisms?
Teacher Support
The question is an application of AP® Learning Objective 3.34 and Science Practice 6.2 and Learning Objective 2.16 and Science Practice 7.2 because students are explaining the roles of hormones in ovulation and the regulation of the ovarian cycle by negative feedback.
Menopause
As women approach their mid-40s to mid-50s, their ovaries begin to lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH. Menstrual periods become less frequent and finally cease; this is menopause. There are still eggs and potential follicles on the ovaries, but without the stimulation of FSH and LH, they will not produce a viable egg to be released. The outcome of this is the inability to have children.
The side effects of menopause include hot flashes, heavy sweating (especially at night), headaches, some hair loss, muscle pain, vaginal dryness, insomnia, depression, weight gain, and mood swings. Estrogen is involved in calcium metabolism and, without it, blood levels of calcium decrease. To replenish the blood, calcium is lost from bone which may decrease the bone density and lead to osteoporosis. Supplementation of estrogen in the form of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) can prevent bone loss, but the therapy can have negative side effects. While HRT is thought to give some protection from colon cancer, osteoporosis, heart disease, macular degeneration, and possibly depression, its negative side effects include increased risk of: stroke or heart attack, blood clots, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, gall bladder disease, and possibly dementia.
Career Connection
Reproductive Endocrinologist
A reproductive endocrinologist is a physician who treats a variety of hormonal disorders related to reproduction and infertility in both men and women. The disorders include menstrual problems, infertility, pregnancy loss, sexual dysfunction, and menopause. Doctors may use fertility drugs, surgery, or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) in their therapy. ART involves the use of procedures to manipulate the egg or sperm to facilitate reproduction, such as in vitro fertilization.
Reproductive endocrinologists undergo extensive medical training, first in a four-year residency in obstetrics and gynecology, then in a three-year fellowship in reproductive endocrinology. To be board certified in this area, the physician must pass written and oral exams in both areas.