Julianne Zedalis; John Eggebrecht

Learning Objectives

In this section, you will explore the following questions:

What are the basic components of blood?
What are the differences between red blood cells and white blood cells?
What is the difference between blood plasma and blood serum?

Connection for AP^® Courses

Most of us have suffered a cut or a scraped knee and have seen our own blood. Blood consists of different types of cells bathed in a water-based liquid called plasma. Red blood cells are specialized to carry hemoglobin (Hgb), a quaternary protein that transports oxygen and some carbon dioxide around the body, to and from the heart and lungs. Hemoglobin also has an affinity for carbon monoxide, a toxic and deadly gas. Variants of hemoglobin help animals adapt to different environments. For example, Hgb-S causes sickle-cell anemia; although this variant of hemoglobin is not as efficient at transporting O², it does provide some protection against malaria, thus providing an advantage to heterozygous individuals. Another variant is Hgb-F or fetal hemoglobin, which transports O² efficiently in low oxygen conditions. Red blood cells develop and mature in the bone marrow and when released into circulation lack nuclei and mitochondria. Blood types such as A, B, AB, and O are related to proteins on the surface of red blood cells. For example, persons with type A blood have A glycoproteins on the surface of their red blood cells. We will take a deeper dive into blood typing, antigens, and antibodies when we explore the immune system in a later chapter, and we also will learn in that the five types of white blood cells play important roles in immunity. Platelets and plasma proteins function in normal blood clotting; alterations in the feedback mechanism(s) that result in normal clotting can have deleterious effects, including hemophilia and stroke.

Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section support concepts outlined in Big Idea 2 and Big Idea 4 of the AP^® Biology Curriculum Framework. The AP^® Learning Objectives listed in the Curriculum Framework provide a transparent foundation for the AP^® Biology course, an inquiry-based laboratory experience, instructional activities, and AP^® exam questions. A learning objective merges required content with one or more of the seven science practices.

Big Idea 2	Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Enduring Understanding 2.C	Organisms use feedback mechanisms to regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Essential Knowledge	2.C.1 Alterations in the mechanisms of negative and positive feedback mechanisms can have deleterious consequences to the body.
Science Practice	6.4 The student can make claims and predictions about natural phenomena based on scientific theories and models.
Learning Objective	2.19 The student is able to make predictions about how positive feedback mechanisms amplify activities and processes in organisms based on scientific theories and models.
Big Idea 4	Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties.
Enduring Understanding 4.A	Interactions within biological systems lead to complex properties.
Essential Knowledge	4.A.4 Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between and among organs and organ systems.
Science Practice	1.3 The student can refine representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain
Learning Objective	4.10 The student is able to refine representations and models to illustrate biocomplexity due to interactions of constituent parts.
Enduring Understanding 4.C	Naturally occurring diversity among and between components within biological systems affects interactions with the environment.
Essential Knowledge	4.C.1 Variations that produce different varieties of molecules help organisms adapt to different environmental conditions.
Science Practice	6.2 The student can construct explanations of phenomena based on evidence produced through scientific practices.
Learning Objective	4.22 The student is able to construct explanations based on evidence of how variation in molecular units provides cells with a wide range of functions.

Hemoglobin is responsible for distributing oxygen, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide, throughout the circulatory systems of humans, vertebrates, and many invertebrates. The blood is more than the proteins, though. Blood is actually a term used to describe the liquid that moves through the vessels and includes plasma (the liquid portion, which contains water, proteins, salts, lipids, and glucose) and the cells (red and white cells) and cell fragments called platelets. Blood plasma is actually the dominant component of blood and contains the water, proteins, electrolytes, lipids, and glucose. The cells are responsible for carrying the gases (red cells) and immune the response (white). The platelets are responsible for blood clotting. Interstitial fluid that surrounds cells is separate from the blood, but in hemolymph, they are combined. In humans, cellular components make up approximately 45 percent of the blood and the liquid plasma 55 percent. Blood is 20 percent of a person’s extracellular fluid and eight percent of weight.

The Role of Blood in the Body

Blood, like the human blood illustrated in Figure 31.5 is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis. Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by removing waste. Blood plays a protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss and transporting the disease-fighting agents or white blood cells to sites of infection.

Figure 31.5 The cells and cellular components of human blood are shown. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the cells and remove carbon dioxide. White blood cells—including neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and basophils—are involved in the immune response. Platelets form clots that prevent blood loss after injury.

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythro- = “red”; -cyte = “cell”), are specialized cells that circulate through the body delivering oxygen to cells; they are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow. In mammals, red blood cells are small biconcave cells that at maturity do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria and are only 7–8 µm in size. In birds and non-avian reptiles, a nucleus is still maintained in red blood cells.

The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-containing protein hemoglobin, illustrated in Figure 31.6a. The principal job of this protein is to carry oxygen, but it also transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin is packed into red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell. Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood cell carries one billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion red blood cells in the five liters of blood in the human body, which could carry up to 25 sextillion (25 × 10²¹) molecules of oxygen in the body at any time. In mammals, the lack of organelles in erythrocytes leaves more room for the hemoglobin molecules, and the lack of mitochondria also prevents use of the oxygen for metabolic respiration. Only mammals have anucleated red blood cells, and some mammals (camels, for instance) even have nucleated red blood cells. The advantage of nucleated red blood cells is that these cells can undergo mitosis. Anucleated red blood cells metabolize anaerobically (without oxygen), making use of a primitive metabolic pathway to produce ATP and increase the efficiency of oxygen transport.

Not all organisms use hemoglobin as the method of oxygen transport. Invertebrates that utilize hemolymph rather than blood use different pigments to bind to the oxygen. These pigments use copper or iron to bind the oxygen. Invertebrates have a variety of other respiratory pigments. Hemocyanin, a blue-green, copper-containing protein, illustrated in Figure 31.6b is found in mollusks, crustaceans, and some of the arthropods. Chlorocruorin, a green-colored, iron-containing pigment is found in four families of polychaete tubeworms. Hemerythrin, a red, iron-containing protein is found in some polychaete worms and annelids and is illustrated in Figure 31.6c. Despite the name, hemerythrin does not contain a heme group and its oxygen-carrying capacity is poor compared to hemoglobin.

Molecular model A shows the structure of hemoglobin, which is made up of four protein subunits, each of which is coiled into helices. Left, right, bottom, and top parts of the molecule are symmetrical. Four small heme groups are associated with hemoglobin. Oxygen is bound to the heme. Molecular model B shows the structure of hemocyanin, a protein made up of coiled helices and ribbon-like sheets. Two copper ions are associated with the protein. Molecular model C shows the structure of hemerythrin, a protein made of coiled helices with four iron ions associated with it.

Figure 31.6 In most vertebrates, (a) hemoglobin delivers oxygen to the body and removes some carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin is composed of four protein subunits, two alpha chains and two beta chains, and a heme group that has iron associated with it. The iron reversibly associates with oxygen, and in so doing is oxidized from Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺. In most mollusks and some arthropods, (b) hemocyanin delivers oxygen. Unlike hemoglobin, hemocyanin is not carried in blood cells, but floats free in the hemolymph. Copper instead of iron binds the oxygen, giving the hemolymph a blue-green color. In annelids, such as the earthworm, and some other invertebrates, (c) hemerythrin carries oxygen. Like hemoglobin, hemerythrin is carried in blood cells and has iron associated with it, but despite its name, hemerythrin does not contain heme.

The small size and large surface area of red blood cells allows for rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the plasma membrane. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is taken in by the blood. In the tissues, oxygen is released from the blood and carbon dioxide is bound for transport back to the lungs. Studies have found that hemoglobin also binds nitrous oxide (NO). NO is a vasodilator that relaxes the blood vessels and capillaries and may help with gas exchange and the passage of red blood cells through narrow vessels. Nitroglycerin, a heart medication for angina and heart attacks, is converted to NO to help relax the blood vessels and increase oxygen flow through the body.

A characteristic of red blood cells is their glycolipid and glycoprotein coating; these are lipids and proteins that have carbohydrate molecules attached. In humans, the surface glycoproteins and glycolipids on red blood cells vary between individuals, producing the different blood types, such as A, B, and O. Red blood cells have an average life span of 120 days, at which time they are broken down and recycled in the liver and spleen by phagocytic macrophages, a type of white blood cell.

White Blood Cells

White blood cells, also called leukocytes (leuko = white), make up approximately one percent by volume of the cells in blood. The role of white blood cells is very different than that of red blood cells: they are primarily involved in the immune response to identify and target pathogens, such as invading bacteria, viruses, and other foreign organisms. White blood cells are formed continually; some only live for hours or days, but some live for years.

The morphology of white blood cells differs significantly from red blood cells. They have nuclei and do not contain hemoglobin. The different types of white blood cells are identified by their microscopic appearance after histologic staining, and each has a different specialized function. The two main groups, both illustrated in Figure 31.7 are the granulocytes, which include the neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, and the agranulocytes, which include the monocytes and lymphocytes.

Two groups of blood cells are depicted: granulocytes and agranulocytes. The Granulocytes pictured are a neutrophil, eosinophil, and basophil. They all have a large dark blob inside as well as many small specks. The agranulocytes depicted are a monocyte and lymphocyte. These cells lack specs and each have a smoother dark blob within them.

Figure 31.7 (a) Granulocytes—including neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils—are characterized by a lobed nucleus and granular inclusions in the cytoplasm. Granulocytes are typically first-responders during injury or infection. (b) Agranulocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes, including B and T cells, are responsible for adaptive immune response. Monocytes differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells, which in turn respond to infection or injury.

Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm; the agranulocytes are so named because of the lack of granules in their cytoplasm. Some leukocytes become macrophages that either stay at the same site or move through the blood stream and gather at sites of infection or inflammation where they are attracted by chemical signals from foreign particles and damaged cells. Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the immune system and include B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells. B cells destroy bacteria and inactivate their toxins. They also produce antibodies. T cells attack viruses, fungi, some bacteria, transplanted cells, and cancer cells. T cells attack viruses by releasing toxins that kill the viruses. Natural killer cells attack a variety of infectious microbes and certain tumor cells.

One reason that HIV poses significant management challenges is because the virus directly targets T cells by gaining entry through a receptor. Once inside the cell, HIV then multiplies using the T cell’s own genetic machinery. After the HIV virus replicates, it is transmitted directly from the infected T cell to macrophages. The presence of HIV can remain unrecognized for an extensive period of time before full disease symptoms develop.

Platelets and Coagulation Factors

Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood loss. Small cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes) are attracted to the wound site where they adhere by extending many projections and releasing their contents. These contents activate other platelets and also interact with other coagulation factors, which convert fibrinogen, a water-soluble protein present in blood serum into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein), causing the blood to clot. Many of the clotting factors require vitamin K to work, and vitamin K deficiency can lead to problems with blood clotting. Many platelets converge and stick together at the wound site forming a platelet plug (also called a fibrin clot), as illustrated in Figure 31.8b. The plug or clot lasts for a number of days and stops the loss of blood. Platelets are formed from the disintegration of larger cells called megakaryocytes, like that shown in Figure 31.8a. For each megakaryocyte, 2000–3000 platelets are formed with 150,000 to 400,000 platelets present in each cubic millimeter of blood. Each platelet is disc shaped and 2–4 μm in diameter. They contain many small vesicles but do not contain a nucleus.

Part A shows a large, somewhat irregularly shaped cell called a megakaryocyte shedding small, oblong platelets. Part B shows a fibrin clot plugging a cut in a blood vessel. The clot is made up of platelets and a fibrous material called fibrin.

Figure 31.8 (a) Platelets are formed from large cells called megakaryocytes. The megakaryocyte breaks up into thousands of fragments that become platelets. (b) Platelets are required for clotting of the blood. The platelets collect at a wound site in conjunction with other clotting factors, such as fibrinogen, to form a fibrin clot that prevents blood loss and allows the wound to heal.

Plasma and Serum

The liquid component of blood is called plasma, and it is separated by spinning or centrifuging the blood at high rotations (3000 rpm or higher). The blood cells and platelets are separated by centrifugal forces to the bottom of a specimen tube. The upper liquid layer, the plasma, consists of 90 percent water along with various substances required for maintaining the body’s pH, osmotic load, and for protecting the body. The plasma also contains the coagulation factors and antibodies.

The plasma component of blood without the coagulation factors is called the serum. Serum is similar to interstitial fluid in which the correct composition of key ions acting as electrolytes is essential for normal functioning of muscles and nerves. Other components in the serum include proteins that assist with maintaining pH and osmotic balance while giving viscosity to the blood. The serum also contains antibodies, specialized proteins that are important for defense against viruses and bacteria. Lipids, including cholesterol, are also transported in the serum, along with various other substances including nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste, plus external substances, such as, drugs, viruses, and bacteria.

Human serum albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and is synthesized in the liver. Albumin, which constitutes about half of the blood serum protein, transports hormones and fatty acids, buffers pH, and maintains osmotic pressures. Immunoglobin is a protein antibody produced in the mucosal lining and plays an important role in antibody mediated immunity.

Evolution Connection

Blood Types Related to Proteins on the Surface of the Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are coated in antigens made of glycolipids and glycoproteins. The composition of these molecules is determined by genetics, which have evolved over time. In humans, the different surface antigens are grouped into 24 different blood groups with more than 100 different antigens on each red blood cell. The two most well known blood groups are the ABO, shown in Figure 31.9, and Rh systems. The surface antigens in the ABO blood group are glycolipids, called antigen A and antigen B. People with blood type A have antigen A, those with blood type B have antigen B, those with blood type AB have both antigens, and people with blood type O have neither antigen. Antibodies called agglutinougens are found in the blood plasma and react with the A or B antigens, if the two are mixed. When type A and type B blood are combined, agglutination (clumping) of the blood occurs because of antibodies in the plasma that bind with the opposing antigen; this causes clots that coagulate in the kidney causing kidney failure. Type O blood has neither A or B antigens, and therefore, type O blood can be given to all blood types. Type O negative blood is the universal donor. Type AB positive blood is the universal acceptor because it has both A and B antigen. The ABO blood groups were discovered in 1900 and 1901 by Karl Landsteiner at the University of Vienna.

The Rh blood group was first discovered in Rhesus monkeys. Most people have the Rh antigen (Rh+) and do not have anti-Rh antibodies in their blood. The few people who do not have the Rh antigen and are Rh– can develop anti-Rh antibodies if exposed to Rh+ blood. This can happen after a blood transfusion or after an Rh– woman has an Rh+ baby. The first exposure does not usually cause a reaction; however, at the second exposure, enough antibodies have built up in the blood to produce a reaction that causes agglutination and breakdown of red blood cells. An injection can prevent this reaction.

Type O, type A, type B and type AB red blood cells are shown. Type O cells do not have any antigens on their surface. Type A cells have A antigen on their surface. Type B cells have B antigen on their surface. Type AB cells have both antigens on their surface.

Figure 31.9 Human red blood cells may have either type A or B glycoproteins on their surface, both glycoproteins combined (AB), or neither (O). The glycoproteins serve as antigens and can elicit an immune response in a person who receives a transfusion containing unfamiliar antigens. Type O blood, which has no A or B antigens, does not elicit an immune response when injected into a person of any blood type. Thus, O is considered the universal donor. Persons with type AB blood can accept blood from any blood type, and type AB is considered the universal acceptor.

Which of the following phylogenies, created based on features of the circulatory system of vertebrates, is most accurate?

A
B
C
D

Link to Learning

Play a blood typing game on the Nobel Prize website to solidify your understanding of blood types.

Chordate phylogenetic tree with branches left to right for invertebrate chordates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds and mammals (birds and mammals share a branch)

This simplified phylogeny shows the currently accepted evolutionary history of vertebrates, which are part of the phylum Chordata. How do differences in heart anatomy among these groups support this phylogeny?

The anatomy of the heart among these groups shows a gradually increasing number of heart chambers across the phylogeny. Fish have a two-chambered heart, amphibians and reptiles have a three-chambered heart, where latter has a partial separation of ventricles. Birds and mammals both have four-chambered hearts.
The anatomy of the heart among these groups shows a gradually increasing number of heart chambers across the phylogeny. Fish have a two-chambered heart. Amphibians and reptiles have a three-chambered heart where the former has a partial separation of ventricles. Birds and mammals both have four-chambered hearts.
The anatomy of the heart among these groups shows a gradually increasing number of heart chambers across the phylogeny. Fish and amphibians have a two-chambered heart. Reptiles have a three-chambered heart with a partial separation of ventricles. Birds and mammals both have four-chambered hearts.
The anatomy of the heart among these groups shows a gradually increasing number of heart chambers across the phylogeny. Fish and amphibians have two-chambered hearts. Reptiles and birds have three-chambered hearts, where the former has a partial separation of ventricles. Mammals have a four-chambered heart.

31.2 Components of the Blood