Learning Objectives
In this section, you will explore the following questions:
- What are the four major types of lipids?
- What are functions of fats in living organisms?
- What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
- What is the molecular structure of phospholipids, and what is the role of phospholipids in cells?
- What is the basic structure of a steroid, and what are examples of their functions?
- How does cholesterol help maintain the fluid nature of the plasma membrane of cells?
Connection for AP® Courses
Lipids also are sources of energy that power cellular processes. Like carbohydrates, lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but these atoms are arranged differently. Most lipids are nonpolar and hydrophobic. Major types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. A typical fat consists of three fatty acids bonded to one molecule of glycerol, forming triglycerides or triacylglycerols. The fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, depending on the presence or absence of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain; a saturated fatty acid has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon and, thus, only single bonds. In general, fats that are liquid at room temperature (e.g., canola oil) tend to be more unsaturated than fats that are solid at room temperature. In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them chemically more appropriate for use in processed foods. During this hydrogenation process, double bonds in the cis- conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double bonds in the trans- conformation; unfortunately, trans fats have been shown to contribute to heart disease. Phospholipids are a special type of lipid associated with cell membranes and typically have a glycerol (or sphingosine) backbone to which two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group are attached. As a result, phospholipids are considered amphipathic because they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components. (In Chapters 4 and 5 we will explore in more detail how the amphipathic nature of phospholipids in plasma cell membranes helps regulate the passage of substances into and out of the cell.) Although the molecular structures of steroids differ from that of triglycerides and phospholipids, steroids are classified as lipids based on their hydrophobic properties. Cholesterol is a type of steroid in animal cells’ plasma membrane. Cholesterol is also the precursor of steroid hormones such as testosterone.
Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section, support concepts outlined in Big Idea 4 of the AP® Biology Curriculum Framework. The learning objectives listed in the Curriculum Framework provide a transparent foundation for the AP® Biology course, an inquiry-based laboratory experience, instructional activities, and AP® exam questions. A Learning Objective merges required content with one or more of the seven Science Practices.
| Big Idea 4 | Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties. |
| Enduring Understanding 4.A | Interactions within biological systems lead to complex properties. |
| Essential Knowledge | 4.A.1 The subcomponents of biological molecules and their sequence determine the properties of that molecule. |
| Science Practice | 7.1 The student can connect phenomena and models across spatial and temporal scales. |
| Learning Objective | 4.1 The student is able to explain the connection between the sequence and the subcomponents of a biological polymer and its properties. |
| Essential Knowledge | 4.A.1 The subcomponents of biological molecules and their sequence determine the properties of that molecule. |
| Science Practice | 1.3 The student can refine representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. |
| Learning Objective | 4.2 The student is able to refine representations and models to explain how the subcomponents of a biological polymer and their sequence determine the properties of that polymer. |
| Essential Knowledge | 4.A.1 The subcomponents of biological molecules and their sequence determine the properties of that molecule. |
| Science Practice | 6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence. |
| Science Practice | 6.4 The student can make claims and predictions about natural phenomena based on scientific theories and models. |
| Learning Objective | 4.3 The student is able to use models to predict and justify that changes in the subcomponents of a biological polymer affect the functionality of the molecules. |
Teacher Support
An important misconception to overcome for students is that lipids are not bad for the body. They are absolutely essential to the body’s functions, including for growth and survival.
Another concept to discuss is the insolubility of lipids in water. It is obvious in salad dressing, but why does it occur? If other functional groups are attached to lipids, they may contain some charges and give a degree of solubility to the lipid, but most lipids do not have any charges on the surface of the molecules and are not soluble in water, therefore, lipids are usually described as being hydrophobic.
Insoluble lipids must be attached to proteins in the body to become soluble in body fluids. Have the class research the proteins that transport and carry lipids. Identify their contributions to health or sickness.
The Science Practice Challenge Questions contain additional test questions for this section that will help you prepare for the AP exam. These questions address the following standards:
[APLO 2.9] [APLO 2.10] [APLO 2.12] [APLO 2.13][APLO 2.14][APLO 4.14]
Fats and Oils
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are largely nonpolar in nature. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include mostly nonpolar carbon–carbon or carbon–hydrogen bonds. Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic (“water fearing”), or insoluble in water. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals (Figure 3.13). For example, their water-repellent hydrophobic nature can help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry by forming a protective layer over fur or feathers. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and an important constituent of all cellular membranes. Lipids include fats, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
Teacher Support
The difference between a fat and an oil is the state of the compound at room temperature (68°F). A fat is a solid or semisolid material and an oil is a liquid at this temperature. Both fats and oils are made up of glycerol and two or three fatty acid chains attached to its carbons by way of dehydration synthesis. A fatty acid is a chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached at the open bonding sites. If the chain is fully saturated with hydrogen atoms, it is termed a saturated fat. This tends to give the compound a relatively stiff configuration and helps it to be a solid. If any of the hydrogen atoms are missing, it is called an unsaturated fat or oil. The absence of hydrogen atoms along the chain causes double bonds to form between adjacent carbon atoms, which results in a bend in the chain. This causes the molecules to push away other molecules near it, preventing the packing of fatty acid chains, and resulting in a liquid at room temperature. Fats tend to contain a high concentration of saturated fatty acids and oils tend to contain more unsaturated fatty acid chains. Both types have an effect on health; a high amount of saturated fats is significantly less healthy than a higher amount of unsaturated lipids. An exception trans fat, an unsaturated fat found in processed foods. Trans fats behave like a saturated lipid.
Divide the class into three sections: section 1: dairy department; section 2: salad dressings, and section 3: potato chips.. Each section will visit the supermarket and identify which fats or oils are in five items in their category. Then, each section will prepare a chart listing their findings and share it with the class.
A fat molecule consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an organic compound (alcohol) with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.” The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36; most common are those containing 12–18 carbons. In a fat molecule, the fatty acids are attached to each of the three carbons of the glycerol molecule with an ester bond through an oxygen atom (Figure 3.14).
During this ester bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the triacylglycerol may be similar or dissimilar. Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides because of their chemical structure. Some fatty acids have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from the palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived from Arachis hypogea, the scientific name for groundnuts or peanuts.
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is said to be saturated. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen; in other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized. Stearic acid is an example of a saturated fatty acid (Figure 3.15)
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is said to be unsaturated. Oleic acid is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid (Figure 3.16).
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. If there is one double bond in the molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
When a fatty acid has no double bonds, it is known as a saturated fatty acid because no more hydrogen may be added to the carbon atoms of the chain. A fat may contain similar or different fatty acids attached to glycerol. Long straight fatty acids with single bonds tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic acid and palmitic acid (common in meat) and the fat with butyric acid (common in butter) are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy most of the cell’s volume. In plants, fat or oil is stored in many seeds and is used as a source of energy during seedling development. Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain cis unsaturated fatty acids. Cis and trans indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double bond. If hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is referred to as a cis fat; if the hydrogen atoms are on two different planes, it is referred to as a trans fat. The cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature (Figure 3.17). Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels whereas saturated fats might contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.
Trans Fats
In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid and of a consistency desirable for many processed food products. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. During this hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis- conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double bonds in the trans- conformation.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated trans fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans fats in the human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which in turn may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently banned the use of trans fats, and food labels are required to display the trans fat content.
Omega Fatty Acids
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids required but not synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they have to be supplemented through ingestion via the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids (like that shown in Figure 3.18) fall into this category and are one of only two known for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acid). These are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are called omega-3 because the third carbon from the end of the hydrocarbon chain is connected to its neighboring carbon by a double bond.
The farthest carbon away from the carboxyl group is numbered as the omega (ω) carbon, and if the double bond is between the third and fourth carbon from that end, it is known as an omega-3 fatty acid. Nutritionally important because the body does not make them, omega-3 fatty acids include alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), all of which are polyunsaturated. Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of sudden death from heart attacks, reduce triglycerides in the blood, lower blood pressure, and prevent thrombosis by inhibiting blood clotting. They also reduce inflammation, and may help reduce the risk of some cancers in animals.
Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other “fatty” foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Many vitamins are fat soluble, and fats serve as a long-term storage form of fatty acids: a source of energy. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore, “healthy” fats in moderate amounts should be consumed on a regular basis.
Teacher Support
This question is an application Learning Objective 4.3 and Science Practices 6.1 and 6.4 because students are predicting how a change in the subcomponents of a molecule can affect the properties of the molecule.
A phospholipid is made of a phosphate group bonded to a glycerol that is linked to two fatty acid chains. One of the fatty acid chains is saturated and the other unsaturated. The saturated one is straight, while the unsaturated chain contains a bend. Phospholipids make up lipid bilayers, the main component of most plasma membranes and give it a fluid like property, a result of the fatty acid tails creating space between phospholipid molecules.
The concept of a bent fatty acid tail contributing to the fluidity of a cell membrane can be difficult to visualize. Obtain some old fashioned, wooden clothes-pins. The knob at the top becomes a phosphate molecule. The two prongs of the pins become fatty acids. Both prongs are stiff, so they are saturated fatty acids. There are no unsaturated fatty acids in this demonstration. Hold a number of the pins tightly in your hand and ask a student to remove a pin in the center. They shouldn’t be able to, as you are pressing the prongs of all of the pins together. This would be in a cell membrane without any unsaturated fatty acids pushing adjacent chains away, creating spaces that allow the membrane to behave like a fluid.
Science Practice Connection for AP® Courses
Think About It
Explain why trans fats have been banned from some restaurants. How are trans fats made, and what effect does a simple chemical change have on the properties of the lipid?
Waxes
Wax covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the leaf surfaces of some plants. Because of the hydrophobic nature of waxes, they prevent water from sticking on the surface (Figure 3.19). Waxes are made up of long fatty acid chains esterified to long-chain alcohols.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major constituents of the plasma membrane, the outermost layer of all living cells. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached as in triglycerides, however, there are two fatty acids forming diacylglycerol, and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is occupied by a modified phosphate group (Figure 3.20). A phosphate group alone attached to a diacylglycerol does not qualify as a phospholipid; it is phosphatidate (diacylglycerol 3-phosphate), the precursor of phospholipids. The phosphate group is modified by an alcohol. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are two important phospholipids that are found in plasma membranes.
A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, meaning it has a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic part. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and cannot interact with water, whereas the phosphate-containing group is hydrophilic and interacts with water (Figure 3.21).
The head is the hydrophilic part, and the tail contains the hydrophobic fatty acids. In a membrane, a bilayer of phospholipids forms the matrix of the structure, the fatty acid tails of phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group faces the outside, aqueous side (Figure 3.21).
Phospholipids are responsible for the dynamic nature of the plasma membrane. If a drop of phospholipids is placed in water, it spontaneously forms a structure known as a micelle, where the hydrophilic phosphate heads face the outside and the fatty acids face the interior of this structure.
Everyday Connection for AP® Courses
Fats are amphiphilic molecules. In other words, the long hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic, and the glycerol part of the molecule is hydrophilic. When in water, fats will arrange themselves into a ball called a micelle so that the hydrophilic “heads” are on the outer surface, and the hydrophobic “tails” are on the inside where they are protected from the surrounding water.
Teacher Support
The predominant steroid found in the body is cholesterol, which is used variously by the body to form steroidal hormones and give flexibility to cells, such as red blood cells, which must change their shape to get through blood vessels and tissues.
Steroids
Unlike the phospholipids and fats discussed earlier, steroids have a fused ring structure. Although they do not resemble the other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All steroids have four linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail (Figure 3.23). Many steroids also have the –OH functional group, which puts them in the alcohol classification (sterols).
Cholesterol is the most common steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor to many steroid hormones such as testosterone and estradiol, which are secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands. It is also the precursor to Vitamin D. Cholesterol is also the precursor of bile salts, which help in the emulsification of fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms by lay people, it is necessary for proper functioning of the body. It is a component of the plasma membrane of animal cells and is found within the phospholipid bilayer. Being the outermost structure in animal cells, the plasma membrane is responsible for the transport of materials and cellular recognition and it is involved in cell-to-cell communication.
Link to Learning
For an additional perspective on lipids, watch this video about types of fat.