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Anatomy and Physiology

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Anatomy and PhysiologyKey Terms

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Table of contents
  1. Preface
  2. Levels of Organization
    1. 1 An Introduction to the Human Body
      1. Introduction
      2. 1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
      3. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body
      4. 1.3 Functions of Human Life
      5. 1.4 Requirements for Human Life
      6. 1.5 Homeostasis
      7. 1.6 Anatomical Terminology
      8. 1.7 Medical Imaging
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    2. 2 The Chemical Level of Organization
      1. Introduction
      2. 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter
      3. 2.2 Chemical Bonds
      4. 2.3 Chemical Reactions
      5. 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
      6. 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    3. 3 The Cellular Level of Organization
      1. Introduction
      2. 3.1 The Cell Membrane
      3. 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
      4. 3.3 The Nucleus and DNA Replication
      5. 3.4 Protein Synthesis
      6. 3.5 Cell Growth and Division
      7. 3.6 Cellular Differentiation
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    4. 4 The Tissue Level of Organization
      1. Introduction
      2. 4.1 Types of Tissues
      3. 4.2 Epithelial Tissue
      4. 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
      5. 4.4 Muscle Tissue and Motion
      6. 4.5 Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
      7. 4.6 Tissue Injury and Aging
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
  3. Support and Movement
    1. 5 The Integumentary System
      1. Introduction
      2. 5.1 Layers of the Skin
      3. 5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin
      4. 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System
      5. 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Review
      8. Interactive Link Questions
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
    2. 6 Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System
      1. Introduction
      2. 6.1 The Functions of the Skeletal System
      3. 6.2 Bone Classification
      4. 6.3 Bone Structure
      5. 6.4 Bone Formation and Development
      6. 6.5 Fractures: Bone Repair
      7. 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue
      8. 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    3. 7 Axial Skeleton
      1. Introduction
      2. 7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System
      3. 7.2 The Skull
      4. 7.3 The Vertebral Column
      5. 7.4 The Thoracic Cage
      6. 7.5 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    4. 8 The Appendicular Skeleton
      1. Introduction
      2. 8.1 The Pectoral Girdle
      3. 8.2 Bones of the Upper Limb
      4. 8.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
      5. 8.4 Bones of the Lower Limb
      6. 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    5. 9 Joints
      1. Introduction
      2. 9.1 Classification of Joints
      3. 9.2 Fibrous Joints
      4. 9.3 Cartilaginous Joints
      5. 9.4 Synovial Joints
      6. 9.5 Types of Body Movements
      7. 9.6 Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
      8. 9.7 Development of Joints
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    6. 10 Muscle Tissue
      1. Introduction
      2. 10.1 Overview of Muscle Tissues
      3. 10.2 Skeletal Muscle
      4. 10.3 Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
      5. 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
      6. 10.5 Types of Muscle Fibers
      7. 10.6 Exercise and Muscle Performance
      8. 10.7 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
      9. 10.8 Smooth Muscle
      10. 10.9 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
      11. Key Terms
      12. Chapter Review
      13. Interactive Link Questions
      14. Review Questions
      15. Critical Thinking Questions
    7. 11 The Muscular System
      1. Introduction
      2. 11.1 Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems
      3. 11.2 Naming Skeletal Muscles
      4. 11.3 Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back
      5. 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, and Thorax
      6. 11.5 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs
      7. 11.6 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
  4. Regulation, Integration, and Control
    1. 12 The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
      1. Introduction
      2. 12.1 Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System
      3. 12.2 Nervous Tissue
      4. 12.3 The Function of Nervous Tissue
      5. 12.4 The Action Potential
      6. 12.5 Communication Between Neurons
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    2. 13 Anatomy of the Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 13.1 The Embryologic Perspective
      3. 13.2 The Central Nervous System
      4. 13.3 Circulation and the Central Nervous System
      5. 13.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Review
      8. Interactive Link Questions
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
    3. 14 The Somatic Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 14.1 Sensory Perception
      3. 14.2 Central Processing
      4. 14.3 Motor Responses
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Review
      7. Interactive Link Questions
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
    4. 15 The Autonomic Nervous System
      1. Introduction
      2. 15.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
      3. 15.2 Autonomic Reflexes and Homeostasis
      4. 15.3 Central Control
      5. 15.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System
      6. Key Terms
      7. Chapter Review
      8. Interactive Link Questions
      9. Review Questions
      10. Critical Thinking Questions
    5. 16 The Neurological Exam
      1. Introduction
      2. 16.1 Overview of the Neurological Exam
      3. 16.2 The Mental Status Exam
      4. 16.3 The Cranial Nerve Exam
      5. 16.4 The Sensory and Motor Exams
      6. 16.5 The Coordination and Gait Exams
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    6. 17 The Endocrine System
      1. Introduction
      2. 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System
      3. 17.2 Hormones
      4. 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
      5. 17.4 The Thyroid Gland
      6. 17.5 The Parathyroid Glands
      7. 17.6 The Adrenal Glands
      8. 17.7 The Pineal Gland
      9. 17.8 Gonadal and Placental Hormones
      10. 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas
      11. 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
      12. 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System
      13. Key Terms
      14. Chapter Review
      15. Interactive Link Questions
      16. Review Questions
      17. Critical Thinking Questions
  5. Fluids and Transport
    1. 18 The Cardiovascular System: Blood
      1. Introduction
      2. 18.1 An Overview of Blood
      3. 18.2 Production of the Formed Elements
      4. 18.3 Erythrocytes
      5. 18.4 Leukocytes and Platelets
      6. 18.5 Hemostasis
      7. 18.6 Blood Typing
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    2. 19 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
      1. Introduction
      2. 19.1 Heart Anatomy
      3. 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
      4. 19.3 Cardiac Cycle
      5. 19.4 Cardiac Physiology
      6. 19.5 Development of the Heart
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
    3. 20 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
      1. Introduction
      2. 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
      3. 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance
      4. 20.3 Capillary Exchange
      5. 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
      6. 20.5 Circulatory Pathways
      7. 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation
      8. Key Terms
      9. Chapter Review
      10. Interactive Link Questions
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    4. 21 The Lymphatic and Immune System
      1. Introduction
      2. 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
      3. 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response
      4. 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types
      5. 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies
      6. 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens
      7. 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
      8. 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
  6. Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange
    1. 22 The Respiratory System
      1. Introduction
      2. 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
      3. 22.2 The Lungs
      4. 22.3 The Process of Breathing
      5. 22.4 Gas Exchange
      6. 22.5 Transport of Gases
      7. 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions
      8. 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    2. 23 The Digestive System
      1. Introduction
      2. 23.1 Overview of the Digestive System
      3. 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation
      4. 23.3 The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
      5. 23.4 The Stomach
      6. 23.5 The Small and Large Intestines
      7. 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder
      8. 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
    3. 24 Metabolism and Nutrition
      1. Introduction
      2. 24.1 Overview of Metabolic Reactions
      3. 24.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism
      4. 24.3 Lipid Metabolism
      5. 24.4 Protein Metabolism
      6. 24.5 Metabolic States of the Body
      7. 24.6 Energy and Heat Balance
      8. 24.7 Nutrition and Diet
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Review Questions
      12. Critical Thinking Questions
    4. 25 The Urinary System
      1. Introduction
      2. 25.1 Physical Characteristics of Urine
      3. 25.2 Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
      4. 25.3 Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
      5. 25.4 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
      6. 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation
      7. 25.6 Tubular Reabsorption
      8. 25.7 Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
      9. 25.8 Endocrine Regulation of Kidney Function
      10. 25.9 Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition
      11. 25.10 The Urinary System and Homeostasis
      12. Key Terms
      13. Chapter Review
      14. Review Questions
      15. Critical Thinking Questions
    5. 26 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
      1. Introduction
      2. 26.1 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments
      3. 26.2 Water Balance
      4. 26.3 Electrolyte Balance
      5. 26.4 Acid-Base Balance
      6. 26.5 Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
      7. Key Terms
      8. Chapter Review
      9. Interactive Link Questions
      10. Review Questions
      11. Critical Thinking Questions
  7. Human Development and the Continuity of Life
    1. 27 The Reproductive System
      1. Introduction
      2. 27.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
      3. 27.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
      4. 27.3 Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
      5. Key Terms
      6. Chapter Review
      7. Interactive Link Questions
      8. Review Questions
      9. Critical Thinking Questions
    2. 28 Development and Inheritance
      1. Introduction
      2. 28.1 Fertilization
      3. 28.2 Embryonic Development
      4. 28.3 Fetal Development
      5. 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth
      6. 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages
      7. 28.6 Lactation
      8. 28.7 Patterns of Inheritance
      9. Key Terms
      10. Chapter Review
      11. Interactive Link Questions
      12. Review Questions
      13. Critical Thinking Questions
  8. References
  9. Index
acrosomal reaction
release of digestive enzymes by sperm that enables them to burrow through the corona radiata and penetrate the zona pellucida of an oocyte prior to fertilization
acrosome
cap-like vesicle located at the anterior-most region of a sperm that is rich with lysosomal enzymes capable of digesting the protective layers surrounding the oocyte
afterbirth
third stage of childbirth in which the placenta and associated fetal membranes are expelled
allantois
finger-like outpocketing of yolk sac forms the primitive excretory duct of the embryo; precursor to the urinary bladder
allele
alternative forms of a gene that occupy a specific locus on a specific gene
amnion
transparent membranous sac that encloses the developing fetus and fills with amniotic fluid
amniotic cavity
cavity that opens up between the inner cell mass and the trophoblast; develops into amnion
autosomal chromosome
in humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not the sex chromosomes (XX or XY)
autosomal dominant
pattern of dominant inheritance that corresponds to a gene on one of the 22 autosomal chromosomes
autosomal recessive
pattern of recessive inheritance that corresponds to a gene on one of the 22 autosomal chromosomes
blastocoel
fluid-filled cavity of the blastocyst
blastocyst
term for the conceptus at the developmental stage that consists of about 100 cells shaped into an inner cell mass that is fated to become the embryo and an outer trophoblast that is fated to become the associated fetal membranes and placenta
blastomere
daughter cell of a cleavage
Braxton Hicks contractions
weak and irregular peristaltic contractions that can occur in the second and third trimesters; they do not indicate that childbirth is imminent
brown adipose tissue
highly vascularized fat tissue that is packed with mitochondria; these properties confer the ability to oxidize fatty acids to generate heat
capacitation
process that occurs in the female reproductive tract in which sperm are prepared for fertilization; leads to increased motility and changes in their outer membrane that improve their ability to release enzymes capable of digesting an oocyte’s outer layers
carrier
heterozygous individual who does not display symptoms of a recessive genetic disorder but can transmit the disorder to his or her offspring
chorion
membrane that develops from the syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, and mesoderm; surrounds the embryo and forms the fetal portion of the placenta through the chorionic villi
chorionic membrane
precursor to the chorion; forms from extra-embryonic mesoderm cells
chorionic villi
projections of the chorionic membrane that burrow into the endometrium and develop into the placenta
cleavage
form of mitotic cell division in which the cell divides but the total volume remains unchanged; this process serves to produce smaller and smaller cells
codominance
pattern of inheritance that corresponds to the equal, distinct, and simultaneous expression of two different alleles
colostrum
thick, yellowish substance secreted from a mother’s breasts in the first postpartum days; rich in immunoglobulins
conceptus
pre-implantation stage of a fertilized egg and its associated membranes
corona radiata
in an oocyte, a layer of granulosa cells that surrounds the oocyte and that must be penetrated by sperm before fertilization can occur
cortical reaction
following fertilization, the release of cortical granules from the oocyte’s plasma membrane into the zona pellucida creating a fertilization membrane that prevents any further attachment or penetration of sperm; part of the slow block to polyspermy
dilation
first stage of childbirth, involving an increase in cervical diameter
dominant
describes a trait that is expressed both in homozygous and heterozygous form
dominant lethal
inheritance pattern in which individuals with one or two copies of a lethal allele do not survive in utero or have a shortened life span
ductus arteriosus
shunt in the pulmonary trunk that diverts oxygenated blood back to the aorta
ductus venosus
shunt that causes oxygenated blood to bypass the fetal liver on its way to the inferior vena cava
ectoderm
primary germ layer that develops into the central and peripheral nervous systems, sensory organs, epidermis, hair, and nails
ectopic pregnancy
implantation of an embryo outside of the uterus
embryo
developing human during weeks 3–8
embryonic folding
process by which an embryo develops from a flat disc of cells to a three-dimensional shape resembling a cylinder
endoderm
primary germ layer that goes on to form the gastrointestinal tract, liver, pancreas, and lungs
epiblast
upper layer of cells of the embryonic disc that forms from the inner cell mass; gives rise to all three germ layers
episiotomy
incision made in the posterior vaginal wall and perineum that facilitates vaginal birth
expulsion
second stage of childbirth, during which the mother bears down with contractions; this stage ends in birth
fertilization
unification of genetic material from male and female haploid gametes
fertilization membrane
impenetrable barrier that coats a nascent zygote; part of the slow block to polyspermy
fetus
developing human during the time from the end of the embryonic period (week 9) to birth
foramen ovale
shunt that directly connects the right and left atria and helps divert oxygenated blood from the fetal pulmonary circuit
foremilk
watery, translucent breast milk that is secreted first during a feeding and is rich in lactose and protein; quenches the infant’s thirst
gastrulation
process of cell migration and differentiation into three primary germ layers following cleavage and implantation
genotype
complete genetic makeup of an individual
gestation
in human development, the period required for embryonic and fetal development in utero; pregnancy
heterozygous
having two different alleles for a given gene
hindmilk
opaque, creamy breast milk delivered toward the end of a feeding; rich in fat; satisfies the infant’s appetite
homozygous
having two identical alleles for a given gene
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
hormone that directs the corpus luteum to survive, enlarge, and continue producing progesterone and estrogen to suppress menses and secure an environment suitable for the developing embryo
hypoblast
lower layer of cells of the embryonic disc that extend into the blastocoel to form the yolk sac
implantation
process by which a blastocyst embeds itself in the uterine endometrium
incomplete dominance
pattern of inheritance in which a heterozygous genotype expresses a phenotype intermediate between dominant and recessive phenotypes
inner cell mass
cluster of cells within the blastocyst that is fated to become the embryo
involution
postpartum shrinkage of the uterus back to its pre-pregnancy volume
karyotype
systematic arrangement of images of chromosomes into homologous pairs
lactation
process by which milk is synthesized and secreted from the mammary glands of the postpartum female breast in response to sucking at the nipple
lanugo
silk-like hairs that coat the fetus; shed later in fetal development
let-down reflex
release of milk from the alveoli triggered by infant suckling
lightening
descent of the fetus lower into the pelvis in late pregnancy; also called “dropping”
lochia
postpartum vaginal discharge that begins as blood and ends as a whitish discharge; the end of lochia signals that the site of placental attachment has healed
meconium
fetal wastes consisting of ingested amniotic fluid, cellular debris, mucus, and bile
mesoderm
primary germ layer that becomes the skeleton, muscles, connective tissue, heart, blood vessels, and kidneys
morula
tightly packed sphere of blastomeres that has reached the uterus but has not yet implanted itself
mutation
change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
neural fold
elevated edge of the neural groove
neural plate
thickened layer of neuroepithelium that runs longitudinally along the dorsal surface of an embryo and gives rise to nervous system tissue
neural tube
precursor to structures of the central nervous system, formed by the invagination and separation of neuroepithelium
neurulation
embryonic process that establishes the central nervous system
nonshivering thermogenesis
process of breaking down brown adipose tissue to produce heat in the absence of a shivering response
notochord
rod-shaped, mesoderm-derived structure that provides support for growing fetus
organogenesis
development of the rudimentary structures of all of an embryo’s organs from the germ layers
parturition
childbirth
phenotype
physical or biochemical manifestation of the genotype; expression of the alleles
placenta
organ that forms during pregnancy to nourish the developing fetus; also regulates waste and gas exchange between mother and fetus
placenta previa
low placement of fetus within uterus causes placenta to partially or completely cover the opening of the cervix as it grows
placentation
formation of the placenta; complete by weeks 14–16 of pregnancy
polyspermy
penetration of an oocyte by more than one sperm
primitive streak
indentation along the dorsal surface of the epiblast through which cells migrate to form the endoderm and mesoderm during gastrulation
prolactin
pituitary hormone that establishes and maintains the supply of breast milk; also important for the mobilization of maternal micronutrients for breast milk
Punnett square
grid used to display all possible combinations of alleles transmitted by parents to offspring and predict the mathematical probability of offspring inheriting a given genotype
quickening
fetal movements that are strong enough to be felt by the mother
recessive
describes a trait that is only expressed in homozygous form and is masked in heterozygous form
recessive lethal
inheritance pattern in which individuals with two copies of a lethal allele do not survive in utero or have a shortened life span
sex chromosomes
pair of chromosomes involved in sex determination; in males, the XY chromosomes; in females, the XX chromosomes
shunt
circulatory shortcut that diverts the flow of blood from one region to another
somite
one of the paired, repeating blocks of tissue located on either side of the notochord in the early embryo
syncytiotrophoblast
superficial cells of the trophoblast that fuse to form a multinucleated body that digests endometrial cells to firmly secure the blastocyst to the uterine wall
trait
variation of an expressed characteristic
trimester
division of the duration of a pregnancy into three 3-month terms
trophoblast
fluid-filled shell of squamous cells destined to become the chorionic villi, placenta, and associated fetal membranes
true labor
regular contractions that immediately precede childbirth; they do not abate with hydration or rest, and they become more frequent and powerful with time
umbilical cord
connection between the developing conceptus and the placenta; carries deoxygenated blood and wastes from the fetus and returns nutrients and oxygen from the mother
vernix caseosa
waxy, cheese-like substance that protects the delicate fetal skin until birth
X-linked
pattern of inheritance in which an allele is carried on the X chromosome of the 23rd pair
X-linked dominant
pattern of dominant inheritance that corresponds to a gene on the X chromosome of the 23rd pair
X-linked recessive
pattern of recessive inheritance that corresponds to a gene on the X chromosome of the 23rd pair
yolk sac
membrane associated with primitive circulation to the developing embryo; source of the first blood cells and germ cells and contributes to the umbilical cord structure
zona pellucida
thick, gel-like glycoprotein membrane that coats the oocyte and must be penetrated by sperm before fertilization can occur
zygote
fertilized egg; a diploid cell resulting from the fertilization of haploid gametes from the male and female lines
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