Key Terms

alkaloid

substance, usually from a plant source, that is chemically basic with respect to pH and will stimulate bitter receptors

amacrine cell

type of cell in the retina that connects to the bipolar cells near the outer synaptic layer and provides the basis for early image processing within the retina

ampulla

in the ear, the structure at the base of a semicircular canal that contains the hair cells and cupula for transduction of rotational movement of the head

anosmia

loss of the sense of smell; usually the result of physical disruption of the first cranial nerve

anterior corticospinal tract

division of the corticospinal pathway that travels through the ventral (anterior) column of the spinal cord and controls axial musculature through the medial motor neurons in the ventral (anterior) horn

aqueous humor

watery fluid that fills the anterior chamber containing the cornea, iris, ciliary body, and lens of the eye

ascending pathway

fiber structure that relays sensory information from the periphery through the spinal cord and brain stem to other structures of the brain

association area

region of cortex connected to a primary sensory cortical area that further processes the information to generate more complex sensory perceptions

audition

sense of hearing

auricle

fleshy external structure of the ear

basilar membrane

in the ear, the floor of the cochlear duct on which the organ of Corti sits

Betz cells

output cells of the primary motor cortex that cause musculature to move through synapses on cranial and spinal motor neurons

binocular depth cues

indications of the distance of visual stimuli on the basis of slight differences in the images projected onto either retina

bipolar cell

cell type in the retina that connects the photoreceptors to the RGCs

Broca’s area

region of the frontal lobe associated with the motor commands necessary for speech production

capsaicin

molecule that activates nociceptors by interacting with a temperature-sensitive ion channel and is the basis for “hot” sensations in spicy food

cerebral peduncles

segments of the descending motor pathway that make up the white matter of the ventral midbrain

cervical enlargement

region of the ventral (anterior) horn of the spinal cord that has a larger population of motor neurons for the greater number of and finer control of muscles of the upper limb

chemoreceptor

sensory receptor cell that is sensitive to chemical stimuli, such as in taste, smell, or pain

chief sensory nucleus

component of the trigeminal nuclei that is found in the pons

choroid

highly vascular tissue in the wall of the eye that supplies the outer retina with blood

ciliary body

smooth muscle structure on the interior surface of the iris that controls the shape of the lens through the zonule fibers

circadian rhythm

internal perception of the daily cycle of light and dark based on retinal activity related to sunlight

cochlea

auditory portion of the inner ear containing structures to transduce sound stimuli

cochlear duct

space within the auditory portion of the inner ear that contains the organ of Corti and is adjacent to the scala tympani and scala vestibuli on either side

cone photoreceptor

one of the two types of retinal receptor cell that is specialized for color vision through the use of three photopigments distributed through three separate populations of cells

contralateral

word meaning “on the opposite side,” as in axons that cross the midline in a fiber tract

cornea

fibrous covering of the anterior region of the eye that is transparent so that light can pass through it

corneal reflex

protective response to stimulation of the cornea causing contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle resulting in blinking of the eye

corticobulbar tract

connection between the cortex and the brain stem responsible for generating movement

corticospinal tract

connection between the cortex and the spinal cord responsible for generating movement

cupula

specialized structure within the base of a semicircular canal that bends the stereocilia of hair cells when the head rotates by way of the relative movement of the enclosed fluid

decussate

to cross the midline, as in fibers that project from one side of the body to the other

dorsal column system

ascending tract of the spinal cord associated with fine touch and proprioceptive sensations

dorsal stream

connections between cortical areas from the occipital to parietal lobes that are responsible for the perception of visual motion and guiding movement of the body in relation to that motion

encapsulated ending

configuration of a sensory receptor neuron with dendrites surrounded by specialized structures to aid in transduction of a particular type of sensation, such as the lamellated corpuscles in the deep dermis and subcutaneous tissue

equilibrium

sense of balance that includes sensations of position and movement of the head

executive functions

cognitive processes of the prefrontal cortex that lead to directing goal-directed behavior, which is a precursor to executing motor commands

external ear

structures on the lateral surface of the head, including the auricle and the ear canal back to the tympanic membrane

exteroceptor

sensory receptor that is positioned to interpret stimuli from the external environment, such as photoreceptors in the eye or somatosensory receptors in the skin

extraocular muscle

one of six muscles originating out of the bones of the orbit and inserting into the surface of the eye which are responsible for moving the eye

extrapyramidal system

pathways between the brain and spinal cord that are separate from the corticospinal tract and are responsible for modulating the movements generated through that primary pathway

fasciculus cuneatus

lateral division of the dorsal column system composed of fibers from sensory neurons in the upper body

fasciculus gracilis

medial division of the dorsal column system composed of fibers from sensory neurons in the lower body

fibrous tunic

outer layer of the eye primarily composed of connective tissue known as the sclera and cornea

fovea

exact center of the retina at which visual stimuli are focused for maximal acuity, where the retina is thinnest, at which there is nothing but photoreceptors

free nerve ending

configuration of a sensory receptor neuron with dendrites in the connective tissue of the organ, such as in the dermis of the skin, that are most often sensitive to chemical, thermal, and mechanical stimuli

frontal eye fields

area of the prefrontal cortex responsible for moving the eyes to attend to visual stimuli

general sense

any sensory system that is distributed throughout the body and incorporated into organs of multiple other systems, such as the walls of the digestive organs or the skin

gustation

sense of taste

gustatory receptor cells

sensory cells in the taste bud that transduce the chemical stimuli of gustation

hair cells

mechanoreceptor cells found in the inner ear that transduce stimuli for the senses of hearing and balance

incus

(also, anvil) ossicle of the middle ear that connects the malleus to the stapes

inferior colliculus

last structure in the auditory brainstem pathway that projects to the thalamus and superior colliculus

inferior oblique

extraocular muscle responsible for lateral rotation of the eye

inferior rectus

extraocular muscle responsible for looking down

inner ear

structure within the temporal bone that contains the sensory apparati of hearing and balance

inner segment

in the eye, the section of a photoreceptor that contains the nucleus and other major organelles for normal cellular functions

inner synaptic layer

layer in the retina where bipolar cells connect to RGCs

interaural intensity difference

cue used to aid sound localization in the horizontal plane that compares the relative loudness of sounds at the two ears, because the ear closer to the sound source will hear a slightly more intense sound

interaural time difference

cue used to help with sound localization in the horizontal plane that compares the relative time of arrival of sounds at the two ears, because the ear closer to the sound source will receive the stimulus microseconds before the other ear

internal capsule

segment of the descending motor pathway that passes between the caudate nucleus and the putamen

interoceptor

sensory receptor that is positioned to interpret stimuli from internal organs, such as stretch receptors in the wall of blood vessels

ipsilateral

word meaning on the same side, as in axons that do not cross the midline in a fiber tract

iris

colored portion of the anterior eye that surrounds the pupil

kinesthesia

sense of body movement based on sensations in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and the skin

lacrimal duct

duct in the medial corner of the orbit that drains tears into the nasal cavity

lacrimal gland

gland lateral to the orbit that produces tears to wash across the surface of the eye

lateral corticospinal tract

division of the corticospinal pathway that travels through the lateral column of the spinal cord and controls appendicular musculature through the lateral motor neurons in the ventral (anterior) horn

lateral geniculate nucleus

thalamic target of the RGCs that projects to the visual cortex

lateral rectus

extraocular muscle responsible for abduction of the eye

lens

component of the eye that focuses light on the retina

levator palpebrae superioris

muscle that causes elevation of the upper eyelid, controlled by fibers in the oculomotor nerve

lumbar enlargement

region of the ventral (anterior) horn of the spinal cord that has a larger population of motor neurons for the greater number of muscles of the lower limb

macula

enlargement at the base of a semicircular canal at which transduction of equilibrium stimuli takes place within the ampulla

malleus

(also, hammer) ossicle that is directly attached to the tympanic membrane

mechanoreceptor

receptor cell that transduces mechanical stimuli into an electrochemical signal

medial geniculate nucleus

thalamic target of the auditory brain stem that projects to the auditory cortex

medial lemniscus

fiber tract of the dorsal column system that extends from the nuclei gracilis and cuneatus to the thalamus, and decussates

medial rectus

extraocular muscle responsible for adduction of the eye

mesencephalic nucleus

component of the trigeminal nuclei that is found in the midbrain

middle ear

space within the temporal bone between the ear canal and bony labyrinth where the ossicles amplify sound waves from the tympanic membrane to the oval window

multimodal integration area

region of the cerebral cortex in which information from more than one sensory modality is processed to arrive at higher level cortical functions such as memory, learning, or cognition

neural tunic

layer of the eye that contains nervous tissue, namely the retina

nociceptor

receptor cell that senses pain stimuli

nucleus cuneatus

medullary nucleus at which first-order neurons of the dorsal column system synapse specifically from the upper body and arms

nucleus gracilis

medullary nucleus at which first-order neurons of the dorsal column system synapse specifically from the lower body and legs

odorant molecules

volatile chemicals that bind to receptor proteins in olfactory neurons to stimulate the sense of smell

olfaction

sense of smell

olfactory bulb

central target of the first cranial nerve; located on the ventral surface of the frontal lobe in the cerebrum

olfactory epithelium

region of the nasal epithelium where olfactory neurons are located

olfactory sensory neuron

receptor cell of the olfactory system, sensitive to the chemical stimuli of smell, the axons of which compose the first cranial nerve

opsin

protein that contains the photosensitive cofactor retinal for phototransduction

optic chiasm

decussation point in the visual system at which medial retina fibers cross to the other side of the brain

optic disc

spot on the retina at which RGC axons leave the eye and blood vessels of the inner retina pass

optic nerve

second cranial nerve, which is responsible visual sensation

optic tract

name for the fiber structure containing axons from the retina posterior to the optic chiasm representing their CNS location

organ of Corti

structure in the cochlea in which hair cells transduce movements from sound waves into electrochemical signals

osmoreceptor

receptor cell that senses differences in the concentrations of bodily fluids on the basis of osmotic pressure

ossicles

three small bones in the middle ear

otolith

layer of calcium carbonate crystals located on top of the otolithic membrane

otolithic membrane

gelatinous substance in the utricle and saccule of the inner ear that contains calcium carbonate crystals and into which the stereocilia of hair cells are embedded

outer segment

in the eye, the section of a photoreceptor that contains opsin molecules that transduce light stimuli

outer synaptic layer

layer in the retina at which photoreceptors connect to bipolar cells

oval window

membrane at the base of the cochlea where the stapes attaches, marking the beginning of the scala vestibuli

palpebral conjunctiva

membrane attached to the inner surface of the eyelids that covers the anterior surface of the cornea

papilla

for gustation, a bump-like projection on the surface of the tongue that contains taste buds

photoisomerization

chemical change in the retinal molecule that alters the bonding so that it switches from the 11-cis-retinal isomer to the all-trans-retinal isomer

photon

individual “packet” of light

photoreceptor

receptor cell specialized to respond to light stimuli

premotor cortex

cortical area anterior to the primary motor cortex that is responsible for planning movements

primary sensory cortex

region of the cerebral cortex that initially receives sensory input from an ascending pathway from the thalamus and begins the processing that will result in conscious perception of that modality

proprioception

sense of position and movement of the body

proprioceptor

receptor cell that senses changes in the position and kinesthetic aspects of the body

pupil

open hole at the center of the iris that light passes through into the eye

pyramidal decussation

location at which corticospinal tract fibers cross the midline and segregate into the anterior and lateral divisions of the pathway

pyramids

segment of the descending motor pathway that travels in the anterior position of the medulla

receptor cell

cell that transduces environmental stimuli into neural signals

red nucleus

midbrain nucleus that sends corrective commands to the spinal cord along the rubrospinal tract, based on disparity between an original command and the sensory feedback from movement

reticulospinal tract

extrapyramidal connections between the brain stem and spinal cord that modulate movement, contribute to posture, and regulate muscle tone

retina

nervous tissue of the eye at which phototransduction takes place

retinal

cofactor in an opsin molecule that undergoes a biochemical change when struck by a photon (pronounced with a stress on the last syllable)

retinal ganglion cell (RGC)

neuron of the retina that projects along the second cranial nerve

rhodopsin

photopigment molecule found in the rod photoreceptors

rod photoreceptor

one of the two types of retinal receptor cell that is specialized for low-light vision

round window

membrane that marks the end of the scala tympani

rubrospinal tract

descending motor control pathway, originating in the red nucleus, that mediates control of the limbs on the basis of cerebellar processing

saccule

structure of the inner ear responsible for transducing linear acceleration in the vertical plane

scala tympani

portion of the cochlea that extends from the apex to the round window

scala vestibuli

portion of the cochlea that extends from the oval window to the apex

sclera

white of the eye

semicircular canals

structures within the inner ear responsible for transducing rotational movement information

sensory homunculus

topographic representation of the body within the somatosensory cortex demonstrating the correspondence between neurons processing stimuli and sensitivity

sensory modality

a particular system for interpreting and perceiving environmental stimuli by the nervous system

solitary nucleus

medullar nucleus that receives taste information from the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves

somatosensation

general sense associated with modalities lumped together as touch

special sense

any sensory system associated with a specific organ structure, namely smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance

spinal trigeminal nucleus

component of the trigeminal nuclei that is found in the medulla

spinothalamic tract

ascending tract of the spinal cord associated with pain and temperature sensations

spiral ganglion

location of neuronal cell bodies that transmit auditory information along the eighth cranial nerve

stapes

(also, stirrup) ossicle of the middle ear that is attached to the inner ear

stereocilia

array of apical membrane extensions in a hair cell that transduce movements when they are bent

stretch reflex

response to activation of the muscle spindle stretch receptor that causes contraction of the muscle to maintain a constant length

submodality

specific sense within a broader major sense such as sweet as a part of the sense of taste, or color as a part of vision

superior colliculus

structure in the midbrain that combines visual, auditory, and somatosensory input to coordinate spatial and topographic representations of the three sensory systems

superior oblique

extraocular muscle responsible for medial rotation of the eye

superior rectus

extraocular muscle responsible for looking up

supplemental motor area

cortical area anterior to the primary motor cortex that is responsible for planning movements

suprachiasmatic nucleus

hypothalamic target of the retina that helps to establish the circadian rhythm of the body on the basis of the presence or absence of daylight

taste buds

structures within a papilla on the tongue that contain gustatory receptor cells

tectorial membrane

component of the organ of Corti that lays over the hair cells, into which the stereocilia are embedded

tectospinal tract

extrapyramidal connections between the superior colliculus and spinal cord

thermoreceptor

sensory receptor specialized for temperature stimuli

topographical

relating to positional information

transduction

process of changing an environmental stimulus into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system

trochlea

cartilaginous structure that acts like a pulley for the superior oblique muscle

tympanic membrane

ear drum

umami

taste submodality for sensitivity to the concentration of amino acids; also called the savory sense

utricle

structure of the inner ear responsible for transducing linear acceleration in the horizontal plane

vascular tunic

middle layer of the eye primarily composed of connective tissue with a rich blood supply

ventral posterior nucleus

nucleus in the thalamus that is the target of gustatory sensations and projects to the cerebral cortex

ventral stream

connections between cortical areas from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe that are responsible for identification of visual stimuli

vestibular ganglion

location of neuronal cell bodies that transmit equilibrium information along the eighth cranial nerve

vestibular nuclei

targets of the vestibular component of the eighth cranial nerve

vestibule

in the ear, the portion of the inner ear responsible for the sense of equilibrium

vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)

reflex based on connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves of eye movements that ensures images are stabilized on the retina as the head and body move

vestibulospinal tract

extrapyramidal connections between the vestibular nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord that modulate movement and contribute to balance on the basis of the sense of equilibrium

visceral sense

sense associated with the internal organs

vision

special sense of sight based on transduction of light stimuli

visual acuity

property of vision related to the sharpness of focus, which varies in relation to retinal position

vitreous humor

viscous fluid that fills the posterior chamber of the eye

working memory

function of the prefrontal cortex to maintain a representation of information that is not in the immediate environment

zonule fibers

fibrous connections between the ciliary body and the lens